Corrosion and Fouling Control in Desalination Industry

Preface\nAcknowledgments\nContents\nList of Abbreviations\nContributors\nPart I: Desalination Processess\n	Chapter 1: Desalination: Concept and System Components\n		1.1 Introduction\n		1.2 Desalination Concept\n		1.3 Desalination Techniques\n			1.3.1 Membrane Technologies\n				1.3.1.1 Reverse Osmosis\n				1.3.1.2 Electrodialysis and Electrodialysis Reversal\n			1.3.2 Thermal Technologies\n		1.4 Energy Consumption\n			1.4.1 Energy Conservation Practices\n				1.4.1.1 Energy Recovery Devises\n				1.4.1.2 Dual Operation of Desalination and Power Generation Plants\n			1.4.2 Nuclear Energy Use\n			1.4.3 Renewable Energy Use\n				1.4.3.1 Solar Energy\n				1.4.3.2 Wind Energy\n		1.5 Environmental Sustainability\n			1.5.1 Environmental Issues\n			1.5.2 Concentrate Management\n		1.6 The Economics of Desalination\n			1.6.1 Desalination Implementation Costs\n				1.6.1.1 Desalination Plant Construction Costs\n				1.6.1.2 Desalination Plant Operating Maintenance Costs\n			1.6.2 Desalination Cost Estimation Models\n				1.6.2.1 Desalination Economic Evaluation Program (DEEP-3.0)\n				1.6.2.2 WTCost II Model\n		1.7 Futuristic Approaches\n		1.8 Conclusions and Outlook\n		References\n	Chapter 2: Thermal Desalination: Performance and Challenges\n		2.1 Introduction\n		2.2 Thermal Desalination Technologies\n			2.2.1 Multi-Stage Flash (MSF) Desalination\n				2.2.1.1 Process Description\n				2.2.1.2 Performance Indicators\n				2.2.1.3 MSF Challenges\n			2.2.2 Multi-Effect Desalination\n				2.2.2.1 Process Description\n				2.2.2.2 Performance Indicators\n				2.2.2.3 MED Challenges\n		2.3 Thermal Desalination Development Efforts\n			2.3.1 Desalination Units with Enhanced Configuration\n			2.3.2 Hybridization\n		2.4 Conclusions and Outlook\n		References\n	Chapter 3: Reverse Osmosis Desalination: Performance And Challenges\n		3.1 Introduction\n		3.2 Process Components Performance and Challenges\n			3.2.1 Intake System\n			3.2.2 Pretreatment System\n			3.2.3 High-Pressure Pumping (HPP) System\n			3.2.4 RO Membrane System\n				3.2.4.1 Membrane Configuration and Chemistry\n				3.2.4.2 Membrane Arrangements\n				3.2.4.3 Membrane Performance\n				3.2.4.4 Membrane Fouling\n		3.3 Recent Developments\n		3.4 Conclusions and Outlook\n		References\n	Chapter 4: Advancements in Unconventional Seawater Desalination Technologies\n		4.1 Introduction\n		4.2 Membrane Distillation (MD)\n			4.2.1 Principles\n			4.2.2 MD Membranes\n			4.2.3 MD Configurations\n			4.2.4 Challenges and Opportunities\n		4.3 Forward Osmosis (FO)\n			4.3.1 Principles\n			4.3.2 FO System Components\n				4.3.2.1 Draw Solution\n				4.3.2.2 Membrane Material\n			4.3.3 Challenges and Opportunities\n		4.4 Adsorption Desalination\n			4.4.1 Principles\n			4.4.2 Recent Advancements\n			4.4.3 Challenges and Opportunities\n		4.5 Freeze Desalination\n			4.5.1 Principles\n			4.5.2 Recent Advancements\n			4.5.3 Challenges and Opportunities\n		4.6 Conclusions and Outlook\n		References\nPart II: Corrosion in Desalination\n	Chapter 5: Corrosion in Thermal Desalination Processes: Forms and Mitigation Practices\n		5.1 Introduction\n		5.2 Economics of Equipment Integrity in Thermal Desalination Industry\n		5.3 Reliability Philosophy Within Thermal Desalination Industry\n		5.4 Corrosion Forms in Thermal Desalination Plants\n			5.4.1 Saline Water Corrosion\n			5.4.2 Vapor Phase Corrosion\n			5.4.3 Corrosion Under Insulation (CUI)\n			5.4.4 Microbial Induced Corrosion (MIC)\n			5.4.5 Miscellaneous Corrosion\n		5.5 Corrosion Control Practices\n			5.5.1 Environment Control\n			5.5.2 Material Selection\n			5.5.3 Monitoring\n		5.6 Conclusions and Outlook\n		References\n	Chapter 6: Corrosion in Reverse Osmosis Desalination Processes: Forms and Mitigation Practices\n		6.1 Introduction\n		6.2 Economics of Equipment Integrity\n		6.3 Reliability Philosophy\n		6.4 Corrosion Forms in RO Desalination Plants\n			6.4.1 Pitting Corrosion\n			6.4.2 Crevice Corrosion\n			6.4.3 Microbiological Influence Corrosion (MIC)\n		6.5 Mitigation Practices\n			6.5.1 Environment Control\n			6.5.2 Material Selection\n			6.5.3 Electrochemical and Surface Treatment\n			6.5.4 Non-metallic Solutions\n		6.6 Conclusions and Outlook\n		References\n	Chapter 7: Environmentally Assisted Cracking of Stainless Steels in Desalination\n		7.1 Introduction\n		7.2 Environmental Assisted Cracking Mechanisms\n			7.2.1 Stress Corrosion Cracking\n			7.2.2 Corrosion Fatigue\n		7.3 Environmental Assisted Cracking on Stainless Steels\n		7.4 Stress Corrosion Cracking of Static Equipment\n		7.5 Corrosion Fatigue of Rotating Equipment\n		7.6 Mitigation Practices\n			7.6.1 Material Selection\n			7.6.2 Surface and Materials Engineering\n			7.6.3 Operation and Maintenance Practices\n		7.7 Conclusions and Outlook\n		References\n	Chapter 8: Corrosion Monitoring in Desalination Plants\n		8.1 Introduction\n		8.2 Significance of Corrosion Monitoring in Desalination Plants\n		8.3 Corrosion Monitoring Techniques\n			8.3.1 Direct Intrusive Techniques\n				8.3.1.1 Physical Techniques\n				8.3.1.2 Electrochemical Techniques\n			8.3.2 Indirect Corrosion Monitoring Techniques\n				8.3.2.1 Corrosion Potential Method\n				8.3.2.2 Water Quality Analyses\n				8.3.2.3 Residual Inhibitor Analysis\n			8.3.3 Microbiologically Induced Corrosion (MIC) Monitoring\n				8.3.3.1 Planktonic Organisms Monitoring\n				8.3.3.2 Sessile Organisms Monitoring\n				8.3.3.3 Biological Assessment\n				8.3.3.4 Deposition Monitors\n				8.3.3.5 Detailed Coupon Examinations\n				8.3.3.6 Electrochemical Monitoring\n		8.4 Conclusions and Outlook\n		References\n	Chapter 9: Chemical Additives for Corrosion Control in Desalination Plants\n		9.1 Introduction\n		9.2 Inhibitors for Corrosion Control in Desalination Plants\n			9.2.1 Inhibitors for Corrosion Control of Carbon and Stainless Steels\n			9.2.2 Inhibitors for Corrosion Control of Copper and its Alloys\n			9.2.3 Inhibitors for Corrosion Control of Titanium\n			9.2.4 Inhibitors for Corrosion Control of Ductile Ni-Resist Cast Iron\n		9.3 Inhibitors for Microbial Influenced Corrosion Control\n		9.4 Oxygen Scavengers\n		9.5 Conclusions and Outlook\n		References\n	Chapter 10: Corrosion Control during Acid Cleaning of Heat Exchangers\n		10.1 Introduction\n		10.2 Thermal Desalination Heat Exchanger Configurations\n		10.3 Fouling Chemistry and the Descalants\n		10.4 Acid Cleaning Procedures\n		10.5 Corrosion Prevention during Acid Cleaning\n			10.5.1 Acid Choice\n			10.5.2 Corrosion Inhibitors\n		10.6 Conclusions and Outlook\n		References\n	Chapter 11: Advanced Corrosion Prevention Approaches: Smart Coating and Photoelectrochemical Cathodic Protection\n		11.1 Introduction\n		11.2 Smart Coatings\n			11.2.1 Polymer-Based Nano/Microcapsules\n			11.2.2 Host-Guest Chemistry-Based\n			11.2.3 Inorganic Clay-Based\n			11.2.4 Polyelectrolyte-Based\n		11.3 Photoelectrochemical Cathodic Protection\n		11.4 Conclusions and Outlook\n		References\nPart III: Fouling in Desalination\n	Chapter 12: Inorganic Scaling in Desalination Systems\n		12.1 Introduction\n		12.2 Scaling in Seawater Desalination Processes\n			12.2.1 Pressure Driven Processes\n			12.2.2 Thermal Desalination Processes\n		12.3 Scaling Mechanism\n			12.3.1 Nucleation\n			12.3.2 Scale Formation\n			12.3.3 Factors Affecting Scale Formation\n				12.3.3.1 Effect of Temperature\n				12.3.3.2 Effect of pH\n				12.3.3.3 Effect of Ionic Strength\n		12.4 Scaling Prediction\n		12.5 Membrane Scaling Control Strategies\n			12.5.1 Surface Modifications and Novel Membrane Materials\n			12.5.2 Physical and Chemical Cleaning\n			12.5.3 Pre-treatment Method\n		12.6 Conclusions and Outlook\n		References\n	Chapter 13: Biofouling in RO Desalination Membranes\n		13.1 Introduction\n		13.2 Biofouling\n			13.2.1 Mechanism of Biofilm Formation\n			13.2.2 Role of Extracellular Polymeric Substances (EPS)\n			13.2.3 Crucial Factors\n		13.3 Biofouling Impact on RO Membranes Performance\n			13.3.1 Permeability Decline\n			13.3.2 Salt Rejection Decline\n			13.3.3 Increased Energy Consumption\n		13.4 Conclusions and Outlook\n		References\n	Chapter 14: Approaches Towards Scale Control in Desalination\n		14.1 Introduction\n		14.2 Approaches towards Scale Control\n			14.2.1 Chemical Treatment\n				14.2.1.1 Acid Treatment\n				14.2.1.2 Addition of Anti-scalants\n				14.2.1.3 Chemical Precipitation\n			14.2.2 Physical Methods of Scale Prevention\n				14.2.2.1 Periodic Pressurized Air Backwash\n				14.2.2.2 Pellet Softening (PS)\n				14.2.2.3 Feed Flow Reversal (FFR)\n			14.2.3 Physico-Chemical Methods of Scale Prevention\n				14.2.3.1 Removal of Chemical Species Using Ion Exchange\n				14.2.3.2 Membrane Pretreatment\n		14.3 Recent Approaches\n		14.4 Scaling in Non-conventional Desalination Systems\n			14.4.1 Forward Osmosis (FO)\n			14.4.2 Membrane Distillation (MD)\n		14.5 Conclusions and Outlook\n		References\n	Chapter 15: Chemical Methods for Scaling Control\n		15.1 Introduction\n		15.2 Inorganic Scales: Formation and Characterization\n			15.2.1 Calcium Carbonate\n			15.2.2 Calcium Sulfate\n			15.2.3 Amorphous Silica\n			15.2.4 Metal Silicates\n				15.2.4.1 Magnesium Silicate\n				15.2.4.2 Aluminium Silicate\n			15.2.5 Metal Sulfides (Zinc Sulfide)\n			15.2.6 Calcium Phosphate(s)\n		15.3 Main Categories of Scale Inhibitors\n			15.3.1 Phosphonic Acids\n			15.3.2 Anionic Polymers\n			15.3.3 Cationic Polymers\n			15.3.4 Neutral Polymers\n			15.3.5 “Green” Inhibitors\n			15.3.6 Tagged Scale Inhibitors\n		15.4 Inhibition Strategies\n			15.4.1 Threshold Inhibition\n			15.4.2 Dispersion\n			15.4.3 Chelation\n		15.5 Problems Associated with the Application of Scale Inhibitors\n			15.5.1 Calcium Tolerance (Ca2+ Stress)\n			15.5.2 Sensitivity of Scale Inhibitors to Oxidizing Biocides\n			15.5.3 Scale Inhibitor Entrapment and Inactivation\n		15.6 Conclusions and Outlook\n		References\n	Chapter 16: Technologies for Biofouling Control and Monitoring in Desalination\n		16.1 Introduction\n		16.2 Biofouling\n			16.2.1 Biofouling Species\n			16.2.2 Seasonality of Biofouling Settlement\n			16.2.3 Typical Problems Due to Biofouling\n		16.3 Impact of Biofouling on Desalination Plants\n			16.3.1 Operational\n			16.3.2 Financial\n		16.4 Control Methods\n			16.4.1 Physical Methods\n				16.4.1.1 Filtration\n				16.4.1.2 Water Velocity\n				16.4.1.3 Thermal Treatment\n				16.4.1.4 Sonic Technology\n				16.4.1.5 Ultraviolet\n				16.4.1.6 Oxygen Depletion\n				16.4.1.7 Physical Removal\n			16.4.2 Chemical Methods\n				16.4.2.1 Oxidizing Biocides\n				16.4.2.2 Non-oxidizing Biocides\n				16.4.2.3 Coatings in Water Intake Structures and Conduits\n		16.5 Monitoring\n			16.5.1 Microfouling Monitoring\n			16.5.2 Macrofouling Monitoring\n		16.6 Conclusions and Outlook\n		References\n	Chapter 17: Recent Strategies in Designing Antifouling Desalination Membranes\n		17.1 Introduction\n		17.2 Types of Fouling\n			17.2.1 Inorganic Fouling\n			17.2.2 Organic Fouling\n			17.2.3 Colloidal Fouling\n			17.2.4 Biofouling\n		17.3 Membrane Surface Properties Affecting Fouling\n			17.3.1 Wettability Properties of Membrane Surfaces\n			17.3.2 Membrane Surface Charge\n			17.3.3 Membrane Surface Roughness\n		17.4 Membrane Surface Modification Strategies\n			17.4.1 Surface Modification\n				17.4.1.1 Surface Coatings\n				17.4.1.2 Surface Grafting\n			17.4.2 Addition of Nanoparticles in the Membrane Matrix\n		17.5 Conclusions and Outlook\n		References\nIndex