Coral Reef Restoration Handbook

Restoration Handbook Coral Reef......Page 3
Table of Contents......Page 11
Dedication......Page 5
Foreword......Page 6
Preface......Page 7
Editor......Page 8
Contributors......Page 9
1.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 13
1.2 CORAL REEF RESTORATION — A GUIDE......Page 15
1.2.3 A LEGAL BASIS FOR RESTORATION......Page 18
1.2.4 NATURAL RESOURCE DAMAGE ASSESSMENT......Page 19
1.2.7 EMERGENCY RESTORATION......Page 20
1.2.9 SELECTION OF PROCESSES TO BE RESTORED......Page 21
1.2.10 ANALYSIS OF RESTORATION IMPACTS ON THE LANDSCAPE SCALE......Page 23
1.2.11 RESTORATION DESIGN......Page 24
1.2.13 GOAL SETTING......Page 25
1.2.14 A SCIENTIFIC BASIS FOR RESTORATION......Page 26
1.2.15 COMPENSATORY RESTORATION......Page 28
1.2.16 LONG-TERM MONITORING AND ADAPTIVE MANAGEMENT......Page 29
1.3 CONCLUSIONS......Page 31
REFERENCES......Page 32
2.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 37
2.2 MATERIALS AND METHODS......Page 38
2.3.1 GEOGRAPHIC DISTRIBUTION......Page 41
2.3.2 REEF SITES......Page 42
2.3.3 HEAD /CLUSTER SIZE......Page 43
2.4 DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS......Page 44
2.4.4 DEPTH OF HEAD/CLUSTERS......Page 45
2.4.8 MANAGEMENT CONSIDERATIONS......Page 46
REFERENCES......Page 48
3.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 51
3.2.1 INDIRECT ACTION......Page 52
3.2.2.1 Triage......Page 53
3.2.2.2 Restoring Structural Integrity......Page 54
3.2.2.3 Restoring Topographic Complexity......Page 55
3.2.3 TRANSPLANTATION......Page 56
3.2.3.1.2 Coral Gardening and Coral Seeding......Page 57
3.2.4 ARTIFICIAL REEFS......Page 58
3.3 COST OF CORAL REEF RESTORATION......Page 59
3.4.3 TRANSPLANTATION......Page 60
3.5 FUTURE OF CORAL RESTORATION RESEARCH......Page 61
REFERENCES......Page 62
4.1 CORAL REEF COMMUNITIES IN ALTERED STATES......Page 73
4.2 ACCELERATED REEF RESTORATION......Page 74
4.3.1.1 Jamaica......Page 76
4.3.1.3 Implications for Restoration......Page 79
4.3.2.1 South Pacific......Page 80
4.3.2.2 Marianas Archipelago, Western Pacific......Page 81
4.3.2.3 Implications for Restoration......Page 82
REFERENCES......Page 84
5.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 89
5.2 NATURAL RESOURCE DAMAGES STATUTORY SCHEME......Page 90
5.3 COMPENSATORY RESTORATION SCALING......Page 91
5.4 COMPENSATORY CLAIMS WITHIN THE LEGAL FRAMEWORK......Page 92
5.5 CORAL ECOLOGICAL SERVICES......Page 94
5.6.1 INJURIES AND PRIMARY RESTORATION OPTIONS......Page 95
5.6.3.3 Framework Displacement......Page 96
5.6.4.1 Toppling......Page 97
5.6.4.3 Gouging......Page 98
5.6.4.5 Crushing......Page 99
5.7 RESEARCH NEEDS......Page 100
REFERENCES......Page 101
6.1 INTRODUCTION: WHY MODEL CORAL REEF ECOSYSTEMS?......Page 107
6.3 BALANCING BIOLOGICAL REALISM AND RESTORATION REALITY......Page 109
6.4 DECIDING WHAT TO MODEL......Page 110
6.5.1 MODEL STRUCTURE......Page 112
6.5.2 DATA INPUTS AND MODEL ASSUMPTIONS......Page 113
6.6.1 EFFECT OF SPATIAL GEOMETRY......Page 115
6.6.2 EFFECT OF LIFE HISTORY STRATEGY......Page 116
6.6.3 SENSITIVITY TO DEMOGRAPHY AND DISTURBANCE......Page 117
6.6.4 INTENDED APPLICATION OF THE IRMC IN THE FLORIDA KEYS NATIONAL MARINE SANCTUARY......Page 120
6.6.5 APPLICATION TO OTHER CORAL REEF SYSTEMS......Page 121
REFERENCES......Page 122
7.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 131
7.2.1 TASK 1: RESTORE AND CREATE WAVE-RESISTANT STRUCTURES......Page 133
7.2.2 TASK 2: INDUCE CIRCUMSTANCES ON AND AROUND THE STRUCTURE THAT ARE CONDUCIVE TO THE ESTABLISHMENT AND GROWTH OF LIVING FRAMEWORK BUILDERS......Page 136
7.2.3 TASK 3: SPEED SUCCESSION TOWARD A COMMUNITY DOMINATED BY FRAMEWORK BUILDERS THAT WILL CONTINUALLY RENEW AND GROW THE STRUCTURE......Page 144
7.2.4 TASK 4: CRAFT COMMUNITY ONTOGENY SO AS TO MAXIMIZE THE VALUE AND SUSTAINABILITY OF GOODS AND SERVICES PRODUCED BY RESTORED OR CREATED REEF......Page 145
7.3 CONCLUSION......Page 148
REFERENCES......Page 149
8.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 155
8.2.1 THE NATIONAL MARINE SANCTUARIES ACT......Page 156
8.2.2 THE ANTIQUITIES ACT......Page 158
8.2.3 MARINE PROTECTED AREAS......Page 159
8.2.5 ENDANGERED SPECIES ACT......Page 161
8.3 INTERNATIONAL PROTECTIONS FOR CORAL REEFS......Page 163
8.3.1 UNITED NATIONS CONVENTION ON THE LAW OF THE SEA......Page 165
8.3.3 CONVENTION ON BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY......Page 166
8.3.4 CONVENTION ON INTERNATIONAL TRADE IN ENDANGERED SPECIES......Page 168
8.3.6 CONCLUSION......Page 170
8.4 RECOMMENDATIONS FOR IMPROVING THE LEGAL PROTECTION OF CORAL REEFS......Page 171
8.4.3 ADD REEF SPECIES TO CITES......Page 172
8.4.5 ADVANCE U.S. PRACTICES......Page 173
REFERENCES......Page 174
CONTENTS......Page 179
9.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 180
9.2 SCOPE AND SCALE OF THE ISSUE......Page 181
9.3 NOAA’S CORAL ASSESSMENT AND RESTORATION EXPERIENCE......Page 182
9.4 ASSESSMENT AND RESTORATION IMPEDIMENTS......Page 183
9.5 INJURY TYPES AND INJURY ASSESSMENTS......Page 185
9.5.1 RESTORATION ALTERNATIVES AND IMPLEMENTATION......Page 189
9.5.2 PROGRAMMATIC ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT (PEIS) ALTERNATIVES......Page 190
9.5.3 PHYSICAL RESTORATION ALTERNATIVES......Page 191
9.6 BIOLOGICAL RESTORATION......Page 192
9.A.1.1 Georeferencing and Site Marking......Page 194
9.A.1.6.1 Paint Chips/Scrapings/Pieces of Vessel from Injury Sites......Page 195
9.A.3.2 Vessel’s Direction of Travel and Compass Bearings......Page 196
9.A.3.6 Overflight......Page 197
9.A.4.2 Establish Baseline......Page 198
9.A.4.3 Site Characterization......Page 199
9.A.4.4 Quantification of Injuries......Page 200
9.A.4.5 Qualitative Documentation......Page 201
REFERENCES......Page 202
10.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 205
10.2.1 MATERIALS OF OPPORTUNITY......Page 206
10.2.2 PURPOSE-DESIGNED REEFS......Page 207
10.2.3 UNDERWATER ARTISTS......Page 211
10.3 RECOMMENDATIONS......Page 212
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS......Page 214
REFERENCES......Page 215
11.2 VESSEL GROUNDINGS......Page 217
11.3 INJURY......Page 218
11.4 LEGISLATION......Page 220
11.5 ASSESSMENT......Page 221
11.6 RESTORATION......Page 223
11.7 DISCUSSION......Page 226
REFERENCES......Page 227
12.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 231
12.2 SEXUAL PROPAGATION AND SEEDING OF BROADCAST-SPAWNING CORALS......Page 232
12.2.1 A CROPORA PALMATA......Page 233
12.2.3 LARVAL CULTURE......Page 235
12.3 RESTOCKING OF DIADEMA ANTILLARUM IN THE FLORIDA KEYS......Page 239
12.4 CONCLUSIONS......Page 242
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS......Page 243
REFERENCES......Page 244
CONTENTS......Page 247
13.1.1 THE GROUNDING......Page 248
13.1.3 COOPERATIVE NATURAL RESOURCE DAMAGE ASSESSMENT......Page 250
13.2.2.1 Site Preparation and Mapping......Page 251
13.2.2.3 Detailed Area Assessments......Page 252
13.2.2.4 Injury Summary......Page 254
13.3.1 RESTORATION PLAN......Page 256
13.3.2 CORAL REATTACHMENT......Page 257
13.3.4 SUBSTRATE STABILIZATION /HABITAT REPLACEMENT......Page 258
13.3.5 COMPENSATORY RESTORATION......Page 259
13.4.2 HURRICANE GEORGES......Page 261
13.4.3 MONITORING EFFECTIVENESS......Page 262
13.5.1.2 Coral Reattachment......Page 263
13.5.1.5 Recruitment......Page 264
13.5.2 COOPERATIVE NATURAL RESOURCE DAMAGE ASSESSMENT......Page 265
13.6 RECOMMENDATIONS......Page 267
REFERENCES......Page 268
14.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 269
14.2 INITIAL RESTORATION......Page 270
14.3.1 EARLY PATTERNS OF FRAGMENT SURVIVAL......Page 272
14.3.3 PATTERNS OF SURVIVAL AND RECOVERY OVER 6 YEARS......Page 273
14.3.5 EFFECTS OF SIZE , ORIENTATION , AND ATTACHMENT SITE......Page 274
14.3.6 EFFECT OF DEPTH......Page 276
14.4 EFFICACY OF THE RESTORATION......Page 279
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS......Page 280
REFERENCES......Page 281
CONTENTS......Page 283
15.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 284
15.2.1.1.2 Rose Atoll, American Samoa......Page 285
15.2.1.2 Coral Transplantation......Page 286
15.2.1.2.3 Marine Base Hawaii, Kaneohe Bay, Oahu......Page 287
15.2.1.2.5 Aua, Tutuila, American Samoa......Page 288
15.2.1.2.9 Tepungan, Piti, Guam......Page 289
15.2.1.2.12 Arakabesan Island, Koror State, Republic of Palau......Page 290
15.2.1.4.1 Sasanhaya Bay, Rota, CNMI......Page 291
15.2.1.6.2 Waikiki, Hawaii......Page 292
15.2.2.3 Kahe Point, Oahu, Hawaii......Page 293
15.2.3.3 Satawal Island, Yap State, Federated States of Micronesia......Page 294
15.3.1.4 Assessment and Monitoring......Page 295
15.4 COST-EFFECTIVENESS OF MANAGEMENT ACTIONS......Page 296
15.5 SUMMARY......Page 297
REFERENCES......Page 298
ABSTRACT......Page 303
16.1 RESTORATION THROUGH THE “CORAL REEF GARDENING” CONCEPT......Page 304
16.3 SILVICS AND SILVICULTURE — STILL MANY UNRESOLVED ISSUES......Page 305
16.4 REEF RESTORATION CONCEPTS......Page 306
16.5 A SPECIAL CASE: MIDWATER FLOATING NURSERY......Page 307
16.6 SUMMARY......Page 309
REFERENCES......Page 311
17.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 315
17.2 CARIBBEAN MODEL (CORAL REEF MICROCOSM)......Page 317
17.3 THE OPERATIONAL IMPERATIVE......Page 323
17.5 SUMMARY......Page 324
REFERENCES......Page 325
18.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 327
18.2 IS RESTORATION THE SOLUTION OR A “BIG LIE”?......Page 328
18.3.1 ADDRESSING THE VALUES OF STAKEHOLDERS : ECOLOGICAL , ECONOMIC , AND EDUCATIONAL GOALS......Page 329
18.3.3 CONFLICTS OF INTEREST : ARE YOU A SCIENTIST OR AN ADVOCATE ?......Page 330
18.4.1 CASE STUDY 1: TO RESTORE OR NOT TO RESTORE ?......Page 331
18.4.2 CASE STUDY 2: TRANSLATING CONFLICTING RESULTS INTO MANAGEMENT RECOMMENDATIONS......Page 332
18.5 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS......Page 333
REFERENCES......Page 334
19.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 337
19.2 THE IMPORTANCE OF VOLUNTEERS IN REEF RESTORATION EFFORTS......Page 338
19.3 INGREDIENTS FOR SUCCESS: THE IMPORTANCE OF TRAINING AND COMMUNICATION......Page 342
19.4.1 REMOVAL OF ALIEN ALGAE FROM HAWAII’S REEFS......Page 343
19.4.2 REMOVAL OF WASTE TIRES FROM REEFS OFF BROWARD COUNTY, FLORIDA......Page 345
19.4.3 HERBIVORE REINTRODUCTION AND ENHANCEMENT OF CORAL RECRUITMENT......Page 346
19.4.5 VOLUNTEER PARTICIPATION IN LONG-TERM CORAL REEF RESTORATION MONITORING EFFORTS......Page 347
19.5 CONCLUSION......Page 348
REFERENCES......Page 349
CONTENTS......Page 351
20.2.1 FUNCTIONAL VERSUS COMPLIANCE SUCCESS......Page 352
20.2.2.2 M/V Elpis......Page 353
20.3.1 SCIENCE-BASED MONITORING PROGRAMS......Page 354
20.3.2 SPECIFIC DESIGN FOR EACH RESTORATION SITE......Page 356
20.4 PROBLEMS TO OVERCOME AND SUGGESTED SOLUTIONS......Page 358
REFERENCES......Page 360
COLOR FIGURE......Page 0
COLOR FIGURE 12.3......Page 363
COLOR FIGURE 12.7......Page 364
COLOR FIGURE 14.2......Page 365
COLOR FIGURE 14.8......Page 366