Continual Improvement Process

Cover
Contents
Preface
Acknowledgements
Section A: An Overview
	Chapter 1: Total Quality Management with Six Sigma
		Total quality management—meaning
		TQM—eight fundamental principles
			Customer focus
			Leadership
			Involvement of people
			Process approach
			Systems approach
			Continual improvement
			Factual approach to decision-making
			Mutually beneficial supplier relationships
		Variation
		Six Sigma
		TQM vs. Six Sigma
		World trend in quality
		Conclusion
	Chapter 2: Continual Improvement and Competitive Edge
		Context of quality
		Expectations of the society
		Competitive edge
		Constituents of competitive edge
		Competitive edge—differentiations and distinctiveness
		Continual improvement—a larger perspective
		Conclusion
	Chapter 3: Basics of Continual Improvement Process
		Continual improvement
		Process and its potential
		Zero defect level
		Is zero defect level attainable?
			Dabbawala of Bombay
			Plague, small pox, polio, leprosy
			Outcome
		Improvement as ‘restoration’ and ‘breakthrough’
		Technology
		Tools and techniques
		Managerial practices
		Model
		Conclusion
		Annexure 3A: Tools for quality and their brief description
		Brief description
	Chapter 4: Process and Quality of Process
		SIPOC—a process model
		An overall understanding of continual improvement process
			Phase 1
			Phase 2
			Phase 3
			Phase 4
		Defect
			Defect data and process quality
			Data on defects
		Sigma value of the process—a measure of quality
		Conclusion
		Annexure 4A: Guidelines on preparing defect checklist
Section B: Scanning Methodology to Clean-up and Sanitise a Process—First Step to Continual Improvement
	Chapter 5: Process Analysis Against a Checklist of Process Requirements to be Met
		Background
		Checklist of requirements
			Process
			Illustration
		Screening/review of process
		Conclusion
		Annexure 5A
	Chapter 6: Process Analysis Through Flow Chart
		Flow chart: technique
		Flow chart: analysis
			Case 1: Process of rewinding burnt motors
			Case 2: Complaints from outpatients at a hospital
		Process-centred approach
		Conclusion
	Chapter 7: Process Analysis: Interfering Factors and Action
		Process interference
		Checklist of interfering factors
		Interferences: applicability and analysis
			Illustrative examples
			Illustration 1
			Illustration 2
			Illustration 3
		Relevance to continual improvement project/problem
		Conclusion
	Chapter 8: Process Analysis for Defect Prevention
		Process review
		Reference base—listing for review of process
			Human dignity
			Unhygienic features
			Housekeeping
			Mistake proofing
			Process consumables
			‘Clearance gate’ for process entry
			Misinterpretation of drawing, SOP, WI
			Gaps in defect prevention measures
				1) Defect identification and detection analysis
				2) Defect detection and control by operator
				3) Defect control review
				4) Defect prevention and dominant pattern
			Integration of review results
			Gaps in customer linkage
			Hidden defects
			Process capability
		Conclusion
		Annexure 8A: Self-control: an evaluation as applicable to manufacturing
	Chapter 9: Process Analysis for Gaps in Specification
		Specification
		Gap analysis: listing of gaps in specification
			Clarity of requirements
			Test and evaluation methods
			Rationale of a requirement—concern for customer
			Health and environmental requirement
			Safe requirement of dispatch
			Process(es)
			Material(s)
			Requirement compatibility (with usage conditions)
			Requirement and customer complaint
			Mandatory rules and regulations
			Quality critical to customer
			Juranian classification of customer quality needs
			Customer requirements and their technical assessment
			Skills and knowledge of process
		Conclusion
		Annexure 9A
		Annexure 9B
		Annexure 9C: Note on Juranian classification of quality needs
			Stated needs and real needs
			Perceived needs
			Cultural needs
			Needs traceable to unintended use
			Human safety
			User friendly
		Annexure 9D: Analysis of customer requirements and their seriousness
	Chapter 10: Process Analysis: Customer Interface
		Customer link
		Scrutiny of customer needs
		Customer interface
			Culture of concern for customer
			Cost-effectiveness
			Profit
			Customer dissatisfaction and satisfaction
			Kano’s analysis
			Customer trust and confidence
			Value addition to customer
			Discovering and knowing customers
			Customers’ view—new products and service
			Lead customer
			Listening to customers
		Conclusion
	Chapter 11: Failure Mode Effect Analysis
		Background
		Purpose
		Meaning of FMEA
		Analysis
			Severity (S)
			Occurrence (O)
			Detection (D)
			Format for analysis
			Action phase
			Glossary of failure modes and causes
		Conclusion
		Annexure 11A
		Annexure 11B: Failure mode reference list
		Typical key words and phrases
Section C: Measurement of Process Defect Level and Process Cycle Efficiency
	Chapter 12: Basics of Six Sigma Technique
		Background
		Thought process of Six Sigma
		Process, quality characteristic and specification
		Specification, variation, process capability
		Process capability and quality system
		Statistical control
		Normal law
		Specification, process capability, defects and key thoughts of Six Sigma technique
		Process capability and Sigma value of the process
		Obtaining the Sigma value of a process: z value from defect rate
		z Table and its use
		Illustrative examples: calculating z value from defect data
			Illustration 1
			Illustration 2
		First time yield (FTY)
			Illustration 3
			Illustration 4
		First time yield and z value
			Illustration 5
			Layout for calculation
		Rolled throughput of a process
			Illustration 6
			Illustration 7
			Illustration 8
			Illustration 9
			Illustration 10
		A note on m, opportunities for defects
		Sustainability of improvement
			First time yield and z value of a process chain
		Application of Six Sigma tool
			Illustration 11
			Illustration 12
			Illustration 13
			Illustration 14
			Assessment of cycle time
			Cycle time of inspection and testing (CT. I):
			Note on the number of inspections per accepted item
			Cycle time to analyse defectives (CT. A)
			Cycle time for repair of defects (CT. R)
		Problem 1
			Illustration 15
		Analysis
		Normalised yield (YN)
			Illustration 16
		Process capability analysis (PCA)
		Conclusion
		Annexure 12A: Exercises on Six Sigma calculations
			Exercise 1
			Exercise 2
			Exercise 3
			Exercise 4
			Exercise 5
			Exercise 6
			Exercise 7
			Exercise 8
			Individual process
			Process chain
			Exercise 9
	Chapter 13: Improving Process Flow and Speed to Achieve Lean Process
		Background
		Process flow and process speed
			Two streams of quality improvement
		Checklist of factors having a bearing on process flow and speed
		Lean Six Sigma
		Addressing the factors of hold-up
			Waiting for approval
			Waiting for maintenance
			Movement
			Searching
			Formats and records
			Meetings
			Late starting and early closing
			Push, pull and out
		Process set-up
		Work in process, lead time and process cycle efficiency
			Work in process
			Lead time/process speed
			Analysis of process lead time and process velocity
			Process cycle efficiency (PCE)—the ‘lean metric’
			Lean Six Sigma
		Conclusion
Section D: Continual Improvement Process Framework
	Chapter 14: Organising for Continual Improvement
		Scope
		The big picture of continual improvement
		Strategy plan
		Statistical techniques—understanding their importance
			Improvement: macro–micro
		Micro-category
		Guidelines to project selection
		Authors’ observation on learning programmes
		Conclusion
	Chapter 15: Anchor Points of the Continual Improvement Thought Process
		Background
		Anchor points
			Questioning
			Critical thinking
			Check and verify: data orientation and data dependency
			Driving out the negatives
			Be a part of the solution, not the problem
			Conflict: confront and resolve; not sweep under carpet
			Seek opportunities for improvement
			Zero-based thinking
			Picturise the problem in all its details
			Comfort zone: disturb
			Out-of-box thinking
			Correction and corrective action
			Root cause
			Institutionalise the learning
			Horizontal deployment
			Consensus
			Fallacies to be avoided
			Headache—headache-pill fallacy
			Challenge oneself
			Factors of ‘appeal and feel good’—have a re-look
		Conclusion
		Annexure 15A
		Annexure 15B
		Annexure 15C
	Chapter 16: Involvement of People in Continual Improvement Process
		Background
		Productivity
		Organising an enterprise
			Fading style
			New style
			Role of knowledge worker
		Continual improvement and productivity in an organisation
		Distinct features of a people-friendly environment
			Inner democracy
			Learning environment
			Education and training
			Decentralisation
			Customer and competitor orientation
			Value addition
			Blind spots to avoid
			CEO’s concern/task
		Reality check: involvement
		Impact of continual improvement
		Conclusion
		Annexure 16A
		Annexure 16B
		Annexure 16C
		Annexure 16D
		Annexure 16E
		Annexure 16F
		Annexure 16G
		Annexure 16H
	Chapter 17: Soft Skills for Effective Practice of Continual Improvement
		Background
		Communication
			Purpose
			Effectiveness
			Code of practice
		Communication gap
			Feeling of no need for communication
		Violence in communication
		Meeting
			Purpose
			Road map
			Effectiveness of the meeting
			Specimen types: behavioural and killer phrases
			Behavioural
			Role of chairman of the meeting
			Characteristics: good/bad meeting
		Impact on individuals
		Conclusion
	Chapter 18: Tools of Logical Thinking and Qualitative Analysis
		Background
		Quality thinking
		Tools of qualitative analysis
		Brainstorming
			Customer requirements and their classification
			Factors that are critical to quality
			Flow diagram
			Checklist
			Cause–effect diagram (CED)
			Relationship diagram
			Logical handling of surmises
			Practicality analysis
			Priority Analysis
			Force-field analysis
			Affinity diagram (KJ diagram named after Kawakita Jiro, the one who developed the method)
			Illustrative example 1
			Illustrative example 2
			Comparing product/service with the nearest best competitor
		Conclusion
	Chapter 19: Tools and Techniques: Problem Solving Through Pattern Discovery and Probing
		Background
		Problem
		Pattern discovery and investigation route
		Data orientation
		Tools and techniques
			Run chart: Type 1
			Run chart: Type 2
			Stratification
			Pareto law
			Tally sheet
		Frequency distribution/histogram
		Relationship: scatter diagram
			Description
			Procedure
			Box plot
		Break-even point
			Statistical tolerancing
			Safety factor with statistical basis
			Control chart on measurements: X-bar and R chart for investigation on process capability
		Few approaches: critical incident analysis, engineering a failure and defect generation at levels that generate failures
		Benchmarking
			Meaning
			Scope of benchmarking
			Benchmarking attitude
		Conclusion
		Annexure 19A
		Annexure 19B
		Annexure 19C
			Calculation of 25th, 50th and 75th percentiles
		Annexure 19D
			Illustrative example: engineering a failure
	Chapter 20: Problem, Data and Interpretation of Data
		Thought routine: problem and data
		Reality check: problem formulation
			Example 1
			Example 2
			Example 3
			Example 4
			Example 5
		A digression—reference to research in neurology on data
			Types of data and summarisation of data
			Illustration: measurement of data
			Illustration: attribute data
		Investigation
		Statistical linkage to investigation
		Data on results and data on process
		Statistical techniques
			Interpretation of data: a few illustrations
		Data: a macro view
		Conclusion
		Annexure 20A
Section E: Statistical Techniques for Investigation and Improvement
	Chapter 21: Measuring System
		Importance of the measuring system
		Measuring system: illustration
		Certain fundamental properties that define a ‘good’ measurement system
			Adequate discrimination and sensitivity
			Measurement system ought to be in statistical control
			Measurement system fit for product control
			Measurement system fit for process control
		Traceability
			Purpose
			Definition
			Mechanics
		Conclusion
		Annexure 21A: Framework of a system of control on measurements and measuring devices
	Chapter 22: Measurement Process: Statistical Concepts
		Measurement system ‘ideal’ but measurements are not identical
		Pattern of variation: measurements
		Statistical properties of measurement data
			Stability
			Bias
			Variation
			Bias and variation: relationship
		Bias: assessment
			Test of significance of bias
			Linearity
		Measurement capability
		Relationship: product specification and process capability and measurement system
			Precision
			Repeatability
			Reproducibility
			Gage R&R
			Consistency and uniformity
			Assessment of gage R&R
			Applicability criteria: gage R&R, width error
		Causes of bias/linearity, and inadequate repeatability and reproducibility
		Conclusion
	Chapter 23: Product/Process Comparison: Statistical Tests of Significance
		Statistical significance
			Situation A
			Situation B
			Statistical laws, tests associated with statistical law: single- or double-sided test
			Statistical significance: probability
			Single- and double-sided tests
			Test procedure
		Conclusion
		Illustrative example 1
		Illustrative example 2
		Illustrative example 3
		Illustrative example 4
		Illustrative example 5
		Illustrative example 6
		Illustrative example 7
		Illustrative example 8
		Illustrative example 9
		Illustrative example 10
		Annexure
			Statistical tables
			Table A
			Table B: t-Distribution
			Table C
			Table D
			Table E
			Table F
			Table G
			Table H
		Summary of statistical tests of significance
	Chapter 24: Analysis of Frequencies, Analysis of Variance, Regression and Correlation Analysis
		Analysis of frequencies: illustration
			Type 1
			Type 2
		Analysis of variance (ANOVA): comparison of averages of more than two samples, one way classification
			Certain points to note
		ANOVA: two-way classification
			Components of variation
		Regression analysis
			Exercise: regression analysis
			Fitting the line of best fit
		Correlation analysis
			Illustrative example
			Certain points to note: interpretation
		Conclusion
	Chapter 25: Technology Improvement: Application of Design of Experiments
		Statistics, a key technology
		Industrial experimentation
		Taguchi’s methods
		Principles of Taguchi’s methods
		Design of experiments
		An important observation
		Understanding OA design
		Standard OA designs and their linear graphs
		Steps in designing, conducting and analysing an experiment
			Selection of factors
			Selection of number of levels
			Selection of OA and assignment of factors and/or interactions to columns
			Conduct the experiment
			Analysis of experimental results
			Confirmation experiment
			Selection of OA and allocation of factors and/or interaction to columns–illustrative examples
		Analysis of experimental results: response by measurement (variable) data—illustrative example 1
			Answer
		Analysis of experimental results: response by attribute data—illustrative example 2
			Factors and levels
			Selection of design layout
			Response summary data
			Correction factor
			Sum of squares
			Analysis of variance table
		Summary of results—average response of significant factors and interactions
		Conclusion
		Annexure 25A
Section F: Continual Improvement—Managerial Aspects
	Chapter 26: Managing Continual Improvement Project
		Background
		Management commitment
		Training programmes
		Team building
		Continual improvement projects—classification
		Project team—route map for handling a project
		Database
		Overall assessments: continual improvement projects
		Common reasons for setback in CIP
		Key points to comply with for healthy environment
		Synergistic impact
		Conclusion
		Annexure 26A
		Annexure 26B
		Annexure 26C
		Annexure 26D
		Annexure 26E
	Chapter 27: Route Map for Handling a Project
		Background
		Discussion
		Route map—DMAIC
		Define stage
		Measure stage
		Analyse stage
		Illustrative example 1: feedback from outpatients
		Illustrative example 2: process speed investigation
		Improve stage
		Control stage
		Illustrative example 3: analysis of difficulties in the purchase department
			Definition stage
			Measure stage
			Analyse stage
			Special data
			Inference from data
			Wider participation
			Improve stage
			Control stage
			Consolidation stage
			Use of techniques
		Assessment of each phase of DMAIC
		Continual improvement Six Sigma, jargons
		Conclusion
		Annexure 27A
		Annexure 27B
	Chapter 28: Continual Improvement: Service Sector
		Background
		Peculiarities—non-profit institution
			Volunteerism
		Peculiarities—service sector
		Service industry: few new features of competitive edge
		Training
		Areas of concern
		Conclusion
	Chapter 29: Animal World and Self-improvement
		Background
		Role model
			Love and adopt
			Abhor and avoid
		Conclusion
Section G: Continual Improvement—Larger Vital Issues
	Chapter 30: Culture of Innovation and Improvement*
		Background
		Vision—characteristic features
		Vision—illustrative examples
		Vision and institution
		Clear vision
		Entrepreneurship par excellence
			The national sample survey (NSS)
			The central statistical organisation (CSO)
			Planning
			United nations statistical commission
			International statistical education centre (ISEC)
		Ventures of Prof. P. C. Mahalanobis
			Sankhya, the indian journal of statistics
			The press
			Computers
			Computer research
			Documentation research and training centre (DRTC)
		Recruitment—focus on the potential and not on track record
		Unorthodoxy
			Be unorthodox to build a new culture for research to flourish with freedom
			New areas of research
		Networking for brain irrigation
		An observation
		The Professor, was he a dictator?
		An urgent task
		Conclusion
	Chapter 31: Environment for Continual Improvement Process—Organisational Practices
		Background
		A long journey
			Around 1912
			In 2005
			In 2006
		Challenges ahead
		People—the nucleus of an institution
		Stephen Covey’s classification
			Youth and intellectual capital
			Employee and organisation/institution
		Managerial practices
			Attitude–altitude
			Generating ideas and suggestions
			Check bureaucratic approach
			Simplicity and informality
			Fear of failure
			Creative and innovative
			Empowering people
			Break for success lapsing into failure
			Few practices to boost the tempo
			‘Forget it’
		Institution and its individuals
			Nature of unknown
		Conclusion
Section H: Continual Improvement—Starting off and Practical Hints
	Chapter 32: From Where to Begin?
		Background
		Outlook on housekeeping
		Benchmark
		Cardinal principles
		Issues covered
			Six Sigma status and housekeeping
			Housekeeping and human dignity
			Housekeeping and unhygienic feature—type 1
			Housekeeping and unhygienic feature—type 2
			Housekeeping and stores
			Housekeeping—obsolete and slow-moving items and records
			Housekeeping—scrap handling
			Housekeeping—water leaks, storm water hazard, oil spillage
			Housekeeping—material handling
			Housekeeping at a process by process owner
			Housekeeping—adequacy and upkeep of facilities
			Housekeeping—training
			Housekeeping—measurement and monitoring
			Place of 5S in relation to housekeeping
			Housekeeping and its benchmark: garden—green and hospital—clean
			Wholistic approach
		Conclusion
	Chapter 33: Continual Improvement—Relevance to Individuals
		Background
		Individual and work
		Work and improvement
		Conclusion
	Chapter 34: Epilogue
Glossary
Bibliography
Author Index
Subject Index