Contextual Language Learning: Real Language Learning on the Continuum from Virtuality to Reality

Preface
Contents
1 Language Learning in Virtual Reality: Theoretical Foundations and EmpIrical Practices
	1.1 Introduction
	1.2 Contextualized Foreign Language Learning
	1.3 From Theory to Practice: VR for FL Learning
	1.4 Theory-Driven Studies of VR for FL Learning
		1.4.1 Social Connection in VR
		1.4.2 Game-based Language Learning in VR
		1.4.3 Self-exploration in VR
		1.4.4 Cooperative Task-based Learning in VR
		1.4.5 Learning by Creation in VR
	1.5 Conclusion and Suggestions
	References
2 The Effects of Applying Virtual Reality Implementation on Chinese Writing Skill of Description
	2.1 Introduction
	2.2 Literature Review
		2.2.1 Content and Language Integrated Learning
		2.2.2 Descriptive Writing
		2.2.3 Technology-Enhanced Language Learning
		2.2.4 Virtual Reality
	2.3 Experimental Design
		2.3.1 Participants
		2.3.2 Experimental Procedure
		2.3.3 Measuring Tools
	2.4 Results
		2.4.1 The Performance of Chinese Concepts
		2.4.2 Performance of the Descriptive Essays
		2.4.3 Results of the Writing Motivation Questionnaire
	2.5 Discussion and Conclusion
	References
3 Design of a Distributed Language Learning Environment
	3.1 Introduction
	3.2 Literature Review
		3.2.1 Common Practices of Teaching Chinese as a Foreign Language (CFL)
		3.2.2 Second Language Acquisition
		3.2.3 Distributed Language and Its Applied Research
		3.2.4 Technology, Virtual Reality, and Language Learning in the CFL Context
	3.3 Methods
		3.3.1 Design-Based Research (DBR)
		3.3.2 Definition and Goals of DBR
		3.3.3 Features of DBR
		3.3.4 Research Questions
		3.3.5 Materials: VR Technology
	3.4 Findings/Results
		3.4.1 Design of a Distributed Language Learning Environment Model
		3.4.2 An Example: Design of Multi-Layered Player-Character Profiles
	3.5 Discussion
		3.5.1 Balancing of Scaffolding, Emergence, and Improvisation
		3.5.2 DLLE: Distributing the Divide Between Student/Teacher Centeredness to Event-Driven Activities
		3.5.3 DLLE: Distributing the Wall Between Classroom-Based Formal Space and Technology-Based Informal Space to a Harmonious Dialogical Place
	3.6 Conclusion
	Appendix
	Interview Questions
	Interview Questions (Translation)
	References
4 Levels of Immersion for Language Learning from 2D to Highly Immersive Interactive VR
	4.1 Introduction: Immersing Students to Increase Learning
	4.2 Levels of Immersion
		4.2.1 Virtual Experiences on a Monitor (2.5D)
		4.2.2 Augmented Reality
		4.2.3 360° Video
		4.2.4 Mixed Reality
		4.2.5 Interactive 360 Experience
		4.2.6 Highly Immersive Interactive (HII) Virtual Reality
	4.3 General Educational Affordances of Immersive Media
		4.3.1 Novel Presentation of Instructional Content
		4.3.2 Feeling of Physical Presence in Other Locations
		4.3.3 Social Learning Through Social Interaction
		4.3.4 Experiential Learning Through Replicable Simulations
		4.3.5 Collaborative Spaces for Collaboration
	4.4 Immersive Language Learning Objectives
		4.4.1 Communicative Skills
		4.4.2 Reading and Writing
		4.4.3 Grammar and Vocabulary
		4.4.4 Cultural Aspects
		4.4.5 Social and Emotional Dimensions
	4.5 Affordances of Levels of Immersion and Language Skills
	4.6 Limitations and Trade-Offs
	References
5 Implementing Virtual Reality–Enhanced Tasks in Chinese Language Teaching
	5.1 Introduction
	5.2 Virtual Reality in General Education
	5.3 Virtual Reality in Foreign Language Teaching
	5.4 Tasks in Foreign Language Teaching
	5.5 The Study
	5.6 Research Methods
		5.6.1 Participants and Settings
		5.6.2 The VR Tools
		5.6.3 An Overview of Four Tasks with Unity and Google Cardboard
		5.6.4 Instructions for Using Unity and Google Cardboard for Task Completion
	5.7 Results and Discussions
		5.7.1 Students’ Perceptions of Language Learning with Unity-Enhanced Tasks
		5.7.2 Learners’ Perceptions of Language Learning with Google Cardboard–Enhanced Tasks
		5.7.3 Learners’ Motivation, Engagement, and Confidence with Unity-Enhanced Tasks
		5.7.4 Learners’ Motivation, Engagement, and Confidence Through Google Cardboard-Enhanced Tasks
	5.8 Reflections on the Use of VR Technology
	5.9 Conclusion
	References
6 Into the Real World: Autonomous and Integrated Chinese Language Learning Through a 3D Immersive Experience
	6.1 Introduction
	6.2 Context of the Study
	6.3 Literature Review
		6.3.1 Definitions of Autonomous Learning
		6.3.2 Autonomous Language Learning
		6.3.3 The Importance of Lifelong Learning and the Role of the Teacher in Autonomous Language Learning
		6.3.4 Learner Autonomy and Virtual Worlds
	6.4 Research Design and Methodology
		6.4.1 Research Objectives
		6.4.2 Participants
		6.4.3 Research Design
		6.4.4 Data Collection
		6.4.5 Data Analysis
	6.5 Results
		6.5.1 Theme 1—Communication (NPC)
		6.5.2 Theme 2—Communication (Human)
		6.5.3 Theme 3—Vicarious Living
		6.5.4 Theme 4—Logistical Issues
		6.5.5 Theme 5 —Views and Attitudes About CI
		6.5.6 Theme 6—Vocabulary Building (Interactive Environment)
	6.6 Discussion
		6.6.1 The Values Applied to Communication Functions Within Virtual Worlds
		6.6.2 Delivering Skills Training—A Two-Tiered Support Model
		6.6.3 Managing Expectations to Facilitate Student Investment
	6.7 Conclusion
	References
7 Integrating Augmented Reality and Virtual Reality Technology into Chinese Education: An Observation from Nine Cases
	7.1 Introduction
	7.2 Literature Review
		7.2.1 AVR Technology and Education
		7.2.2 Theories or Approaches Applied in AVR Technology
		7.2.3 AVR Technology in Language Education
	7.3 Research Methodology
		7.3.1 Research Context
		7.3.2 Data Collection
		7.3.3 Research Subjects
	7.4 Cases
		7.4.1 Case 1: Elementary Students’ Chinese Lessons
		7.4.2 Case 2: Teenager’s Writing Lesson
		7.4.3 Case 3: Online and Onsite Adult Learners’ Pronunciation Issues
		7.4.4 Case 4: Online Cultural Lessons
		7.4.5 Case 1: Online Business Chinese Lessons
		7.4.6 Case 2: Situated Learning for Adult Learners
		7.4.7 Case 3: Online Chinese Character Lessons
		7.4.8 Case 4: Training Adult learner’s Oral Skills
		7.4.9 Case 5: Online Culture Lesson
	7.5 Findings
		7.5.1 The Affordance of AR/VR Technology in Learning and Teaching Chinese
		7.5.2 The Challenges that Teachers May Encounter
	7.6 Conclusion
	References
8 A Systematic Literature Review of Augmented Reality Used in Language Learning
	8.1 Introduction
	8.2 Literature Review
		8.2.1 AR in Education
		8.2.2 AR-Enabled Language Learning
	8.3 Review Methodology
		8.3.1 Identification of Eligible Studies
		8.3.2 Analysis of Studies
	8.4 Review Results
		8.4.1 Context of Studies
		8.4.2 Learning Activity Design
		8.4.3 Enactments
	8.5 Discussions
	8.6 Conclusion
	References
9 One-On-One Foreign Language Speaking Practice in High-Immersion Virtual Reality
	9.1 Introduction
		9.1.1 Background
	9.2 Study Design
		9.2.1 The Participants: The Tutor and the Learner
		9.2.2 Instruments, Study Setting, and Content
		9.2.3 Description of the VR Application
		9.2.4 Location Descriptions
	9.3 Evaluative Report and Pedagogical Implications
		9.3.1 Authenticity of the Experience
		9.3.2 Paralinguistic Cues
		9.3.3 VR Versus Videoconferencing
		9.3.4 Scaffolding
		9.3.5 Distractions and Cognitive Overload
		9.3.6 Technical Impediments
		9.3.7 Study Limitations and Future Research
	9.4 Conclusions
	References