Congenital and Acquired Deformities of the Pediatric Shoulder Girdle

Foreword
Preface
Contents
List of Videos
Part I: Fundamentals
	1: Development of the Shoulder Girdle
		1.1	 Introduction
		1.2	 Positioning of the Shoulder Along the Axial Skeleton
		1.3	 Skeletal Development of Shoulder Girdle
			1.3.1	 Scapula
			1.3.2	 Clavicle
			1.3.3	 Humerus
		1.4	 The Genetic Basis for Shoulder Development (Fig. 1.1e)
		1.5	 Muscular Development (Fig. 1.2)
			1.5.1	 Development of the Muscle and Joint-Associated Connective Tissue of the Shoulder
			1.5.2	 Development of Shoulder Muscles
		References
	2: Anatomy and Variations
		2.1	 Bones
			2.1.1	 Manubrium of the Sternum
			2.1.2	 Clavicle
			2.1.3	 Shoulder Blade
		2.2	 Joints
			2.2.1	 Sternoclavicular Joint
			2.2.2	 Acromioclavicular Joint
			2.2.3	 Coracoacromial Arch
		2.3	 Muscles
		2.4	 Neurovascular Structures
			2.4.1	 Vessels
			2.4.2	 Nerves
		2.5	 Summary
		References
	3: Diagnostics of the Pediatric Shoulder Girdle
		3.1	 Introduction
		3.2	 History
		3.3	 Physical Examination
		3.4	 Imaging
			3.4.1	 X-Ray
			3.4.2	 Ultrasonography
			3.4.3	 Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)
			3.4.4	 Computed Tomography (CT)
		3.5	 Conclusion
		References
Part II: Congenital Deformities
	4: Sprengel Deformity
		4.1	 Introduction
		4.2	 Diagnosis
			4.2.1	 Clinical Examination
			4.2.2	 Radiographic Diagnosis
		4.3	 Treatment
			4.3.1	 Author’s Preferred Technique—Modified Green Procedure (Figs. 4.10 and 4.11)
		4.4	 Outcomes
		4.5	 Complications
		4.6	 Summary
		References
	5: Congenital Pseudarthrosis of the Clavicle
		5.1	 Introduction
		5.2	 Diagnosis
			5.2.1	 Clinical Diagnosis
			5.2.2	 Radiographic Diagnosis
			5.2.3	 Differential Diagnosis
			5.2.4	 Histopathology (Fig. 5.5)
		5.3	 Treatment and Outcomes
			5.3.1	 Author’s Preferred Technique
		5.4	 Complications
		5.5	 Summary
		References
	6: Congenital Dislocation of the Shoulder
		6.1	 Introduction
		6.2	 Diagnosis
		6.3	 Treatment
		6.4	 Outcomes
		6.5	 Complications
		6.6	 Summary
		References
	7: Other Dysplasias in the Shoulder Girdle
		7.1	 Introduction
			7.1.1	 Glenoid Hypoplasia
			7.1.2	 Clavicle Duplication
			7.1.3	 Ossification of the Coracoclavicular Ligaments
			7.1.4	 Congenital Forward Shoulder
			7.1.5	 Congenital Anomaly of the Clavicle
			7.1.6	 Dysplasia of the Clavicle
			7.1.7	 Scapular Dysplasia
			7.1.8	 Hereditary Onycho-Osteodysplasia (HOOD)
			7.1.9	 Phocomelia
		7.2	 Diagnosis
		7.3	 Treatment and Outcomes
		7.4	 Summary
		References
	8: The Shoulder Girdle in Syndromes and Skeletal Dysplasia
		8.1	 Introduction
		8.2	 Diagnosis
		8.3	 Treatment
		8.4	 Outcomes
		8.5	 Complications
		8.6	 Summary
		References
Part III: Acquired Deformities
	9: Glenohumeral Dysplasia in Brachial Plexus Birth Injury
		9.1	 Introduction
			9.1.1	 Pathogenesis
		9.2	 Diagnosis
		9.3	 Treatment
			9.3.1	 Shoulder Contracture Release
				9.3.1.1	 Subscapularis Sliding
				9.3.1.2	 Subscapularis Tenotomy
				9.3.1.3	 Release of Other Structures
			9.3.2	 Tendon Transfers
				9.3.2.1	 Lower Trapezius Transfer
				9.3.2.2	 Humeral External Rotation Osteotomy
				9.3.2.3	 Glenoid Osteotomy
		9.4	 Outcomes
		9.5	 Complications
		9.6	 Summary
		References
	10: Humerus Varus and Valgus
		10.1	 Introduction
		10.2	 Diagnosis
		10.3	 Treatment
			10.3.1	 Acute Trauma and Posttraumatic Deformity
			10.3.2	 Septic Arthritis and Acute Osteomyelitis
			10.3.3	 Tumour and Tumour-like Lesions
		10.4	 Outcomes
		10.5	 Complications
		10.6	 Summary
		References
	11: Malunion of the Clavicle
		11.1	 Introduction
		11.2	 Diagnosis
		11.3	 Treatment
			11.3.1	 Author’s Preferred Technique
		11.4	 Outcomes
			11.4.1	 Clavicle Nonunions
			11.4.2	 Clavicle Malunions
		11.5	 Summary
		References
	12: Acromioclavicular Dislocation
		12.1	 Introduction
			12.1.1	 Pediatric Classification
			12.1.2	 Adolescent/Adult Classification
		12.2	 Diagnosis
		12.3	 Treatment
			12.3.1	 Nonoperative
			12.3.2	 Operative
		12.4	 Outcomes
		12.5	 Complications
		12.6	 Conclusion
		References
	13: Sternoclavicular Dislocation
		13.1	 Introduction
			13.1.1	 Pertinent Anatomy
			13.1.2	 Epidemiology
		13.2	 Diagnosis
			13.2.1	 Clinical Evaluation
			13.2.2	 Radiographic Evaluation
			13.2.3	 Classification
		13.3	 Treatment
			13.3.1	 Management
			13.3.2	 Atraumatic Anterior Subluxation and Dislocation
			13.3.3	 Acute Traumatic Anterior Dislocation
			13.3.4	 Acute Traumatic Posterior Dislocation
			13.3.5	 Chronic Instability
		13.4	 Outcomes
		13.5	 Complications
		13.6	 Summary
		References
	14: Septic Sequelae in the Pediatric Shoulder Girdle
		14.1	 Introduction
		14.2	 Diagnosis
		14.3	 Treatment
		14.4	 Outcomes
		14.5	 Complications
		14.6	 Summary
		References
Part IV: Soft Tissue Alterations
	15: Glenohumeral Instability
		15.1	 Introduction
		15.2	 Diagnosis
			15.2.1	 Diagnostic Imaging
		15.3	 Treatment
			15.3.1	 First-Time Acute Anterior Dislocations
			15.3.2	 Recurrent Dislocation
			15.3.3	 Addressing Glenoid Bone Loss
			15.3.4	 Addressing Humeral Bone Loss
			15.3.5	 Posterior Shoulder Instability
			15.3.6	 Multidirectional Instability (MDI)
		15.4	 Outcomes
			15.4.1	 Anterior and Posterior Shoulder Instability
			15.4.2	 Multidirectional Instability (MDI)
		15.5	 Complications
		15.6	 Summary
		References
	16: Scapulothoracic Dyskinesis
		16.1	 Introduction
		16.2	 Diagnosis
			16.2.1	 Physical Examination
			16.2.2	 Muscular Imbalances
			16.2.3	 Glenohumeral Joint Pathology
			16.2.4	 Acromioclavicular Joint Injury
			16.2.5	 Clavicle Malunion/Nonunion
			16.2.6	 Conditions in Athletes
			16.2.7	 Isolated Nerve Injuries
			16.2.8	 Neuralgic Amyotrophy
			16.2.9	 Brachial Plexus Birth Injuries
			16.2.10	 Sprengel Deformity
			16.2.11	 Genetic Muscular Dystrophy Conditions
			16.2.12	 Scoliosis
			16.2.13	 Neoplasms
		16.3	 Treatment
			16.3.1	 Stretching
			16.3.2	 Muscular Training
			16.3.3	 Therapeutic Taping
			16.3.4	 Corticosteroids
			16.3.5	 Surgical Options
				16.3.5.1	 Isolated Nerve Injuries
				16.3.5.2	 Neuralgic Amyotrophy
				16.3.5.3	 Sprengel Deformity
				16.3.5.4	 Genetic Muscular Dystrophy Conditions
				16.3.5.5	 Neoplasms
		16.4	 Outcomes
			16.4.1	 Conservative Management
			16.4.2	 Surgical Management
		16.5	 Complications
		16.6	 Summary
		References
	17: Congenital Muscular Torticollis
		17.1	 Introduction
			17.1.1	 Birth Trauma
			17.1.2	 Intrauterine Constraint/“Packing“
			17.1.3	 Compression of the Accessory Nerve
			17.1.4	 Mesenchymal-Like Cells in the SCM
			17.1.5	 Family History
		17.2	 Diagnosis
			17.2.1	 Clinical Diagnosis
			17.2.2	 Radiographic Diagnosis
			17.2.3	 Sonography of the Sternocleidomastoid Muscle (SCM)
			17.2.4	 Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) and Computed Tomography (CT) Scans
			17.2.5	 Differential Diagnosis
		17.3	 Treatment
			17.3.1	 Physiotherapy
			17.3.2	 Surgical Treatment
			17.3.3	 Botox Injections
		17.4	 Outcomes
		17.5	 Complications
		17.6	 Summary
		References
	18: Thoracic Outlet Syndrome
		18.1	 Introduction
		18.2	 Pertinent Anatomy and Embryology of the Thoracic Outlet
		18.3	 Types of Thoracic Outlet Syndrome
			18.3.1	 Venous (vTOS)
			18.3.2	 Arterial (aTOS)
			18.3.3	 Neurogenic (nTOS)
		18.4	 Diagnosis
			18.4.1	 History and Physical Examination
			18.4.2	 X-Rays
			18.4.3	 Duplex Ultrasound
				18.4.3.1	 Cross-Sectional Imaging
			18.4.4	 Electrophysiologic Testing
		18.5	 Treatment
			18.5.1	 Nonoperative
			18.5.2	 Operative
		18.6	 Outcomes
		18.7	 Complications
		18.8	 Summary
		References
	19: The Shoulder Girdle in Cerebral Palsy
		19.1	 Introduction
		19.2	 Diagnosis
		19.3	 Treatment
			19.3.1	 Internal Rotation and Decreased Ability to Flex the Shoulder
			19.3.2	 External Rotation
			19.3.3	 Subluxation/Dislocation
		19.4	 Outcomes
		19.5	 Complications
		19.6	 Summary
		References