Concise Pathology For Exam Preparation

Front Cover......Page 1
Consequences of Oedema......Page 0
Copyright Page......Page 5
Dedication......Page 6
Preface to the Third Edition......Page 8
Preface to the First Edition......Page 10
Acknowledgements......Page 12
Table of Contents......Page 14
I General Pathology......Page 16
1 Cell Injury and Cell Death......Page 17
Q. What are the different types of cell injuries?......Page 18
Q. Enumerate and describe in brief different types of cellular adaptations.......Page 19
Definition......Page 20
Mechanism......Page 21
Mechanism......Page 22
Q. Define dysplasia.......Page 23
Causes of Cell Injury......Page 24
Q. Describe the sequence of events occurring in reversible and irreversible injury.......Page 25
Q. Write briefly on free radical-mediated cell injury.......Page 26
Q. Define necrosis and describe its various morphological patterns.......Page 27
Q. Differentiate between coagulative and liquefactive necrosis.......Page 31
Q. Differentiate between dry and wet gangrene.......Page 32
Sequence of Morphological Changes in Apoptosis (Fig. 1.12)......Page 33
Mechanism of Apoptosis......Page 34
Q. Enumerate the steps in diagnosis of apoptosis.......Page 36
Accumulation of Normal Cellular Constituent in Excess......Page 37
Hyaline Change (Derived From Hyalos Glass)......Page 39
Accumulation of Pigments......Page 40
Staining characteristics of lipofuscin:......Page 41
Microscopy......Page 43
Indicators of Declining Cell Function Associated With Ageing......Page 44
Ubiquitin......Page 45
2 Acute and Chronic Inflammation......Page 46
Q. Write briefly on the vascular events in acute inflammation.......Page 47
Q. Enumerate the causes of leaky endothelium.......Page 48
Q. Write briefly on the cellular events involved in acute inflammation.......Page 49
Q. Write briefly on chemotaxis.......Page 50
Q. Write briefly on phagocytosis.......Page 51
Steps in Phagocytosis (Fig. 2.4)......Page 52
Q. Enumerate the defects in leukocyte functions.......Page 53
Q. Enumerate the chemical mediators of inflammation.......Page 54
Q. Enumerate the steps involved in generation of arachidonic acid metabolites.......Page 55
Q. What are cytokines? Describe their role in inflammation.......Page 56
Q. Write briefly on complement system.......Page 57
Q. Enumerate the steps involved in activation of kinin and clotting systems.......Page 59
Q. What are the systemic effects of inflammation?......Page 60
Q. Enumerate and describe the various morphological patterns of acute inflammation?......Page 61
Q. Enumerate the causes of chronic inflammation and write briefly on its morphology.......Page 62
Cells Involved in Chronic Inflammation......Page 63
Q. What is granulomatous inflammation? Enumerate some granulo­matous diseases.......Page 65
Q. Enumerate the components of granulation tissue.......Page 66
Q. Differentiate between granulation tissue and granuloma.......Page 67
3 Healing and Repair......Page 68
Q. Enumerate the sequence of events involved in reparative response following an injury.......Page 69
Q. Write briefly on cell cycle.......Page 70
Steps in the Cell Cycle......Page 71
Q. Enumerate the growth factors and cytokines involved in regeneration and wound healing.......Page 72
Receptors and Signalling Pathways......Page 73
Components of ECM......Page 74
Q. Write briefly on cell and tissue regeneration.......Page 75
Q. Write briefly on angiogenesis.......Page 76
Q. Write briefly on healing by primary or first intention.......Page 77
Q. Write in detail on healing in specialized tissues.......Page 79
Q. Enumerate the complications of wound healing.......Page 81
Q. What are the factors affecting fluid balance across capillaries?......Page 83
Q. Write briefly on normal regulatory mechanisms responsible for maintaining sodium and water balance.......Page 84
Q. Write briefly on the pathogenesis of oedema.......Page 85
Q. Differentiate between cardiac and renal oedema.......Page 86
Q. Define and compare hyperaemia and congestion. Write briefly on the pathogenesis and outcomes of chronic venous congestion.......Page 87
Q. Write briefly on the pathogenesis and clinicopathological features of pulmonary congestion.......Page 88
Q. Write briefly on the pathogenesis and clinicopathological features of congestive splenomegaly.......Page 89
Q. Write briefly on the pathogenesis and clinicopathological features of hepatic congestion.......Page 90
Haemostasis......Page 91
Q. Write briefly on the factors contributing to thrombus formation.......Page 92
General Features of Thrombi......Page 93
Q. Write briefly on fate of a thrombus.......Page 94
Q. Write briefly on the aetiopathogenesis and complications of pulmonary embolism.......Page 95
Pathogenesis......Page 96
Causes of Death......Page 97
Q. Define and classify infarcts.......Page 98
Aetiology and Classification......Page 99
Pathogenesis of Cardiogenic Shock......Page 100
Stages of Shock......Page 101
Morphologic Changes in Shock......Page 102
Clinical Features of Shock......Page 103
5 Diseases of Immunity......Page 104
T Lymphocytes......Page 106
Macrophages......Page 107
Q. Enumerate the differences between T lymphocytes and B lymphocytes.......Page 108
Roles of HLA Complex......Page 109
Q. Enumerate the characteristics of CD4+ and CD8+ T lymphocytes.......Page 110
Q. Differentiate between helper and suppressor T cells.......Page 111
Mechanism Underlying Type I Hypersensitivity (Flowchart 5.2)......Page 112
Q. Write briefly on the role of eosinophils in type I hypersensitivity.......Page 113
Mechanisms Underlying Type II Hypersensitivity......Page 114
Factors Influencing Deposition of Immune Complexes in Various Tissues......Page 115
Mechanism of Immune Complex-Mediated Tissue Injury (Flowchart 5.7)......Page 116
Morphology of DTH......Page 117
T Cell-Mediated Cytotoxicity/Cytolysis (Flowchart 5.9):......Page 118
Q. Tabulate differences between the different types of hyper­sensitivity.......Page 119
Q. Define immunologic tolerance. What are its different types?......Page 120
Mechanisms of Development of Autoimmunity......Page 121
Evidence Implicating Genetic Factors in Development of Autoimmunity......Page 122
Aetiology......Page 123
Morphological Features of SLE......Page 124
Q. Define transplant rejection. Describe the pathogenesis, clinical features and morphology of acute and chronic rejection.......Page 126
Q. Write briefly on transplantation of hematopoietic cells.......Page 127
Physical Nature of Amyloid......Page 128
Q. Classify amyloidosis. Describe the aetiology and clinicopathological features of the same.......Page 129
Gross Features......Page 130
Liver......Page 131
Q. Write briefly on primary or congenital immune deficiency diseases.......Page 132
Q. Write in detail on the etiopathogenesis of acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS).......Page 133
Targets......Page 134
Q. Write briefly on Centers for Disease Control (CDC) classification of categories of HIV Infection.......Page 135
Q. Write briefly on the laboratory diagnosis of AIDS.......Page 136
Q. Define a teratoma.......Page 138
Classification of Neoplasms......Page 139
Q. Define differentiation?......Page 140
Q. Define dysplasia. Enumerate the steps in the course of progression of dysplasia to invasive cancer.......Page 141
Q. Define and classify malignant tumours.......Page 142
Q. Define local invasion.......Page 143
Pathways of Spread of the Tumours......Page 144
Familial and Genetic Factors (Inherited Predisposition to Cancer)......Page 145
Nonhereditary Predisposing Conditions......Page 147
Q. Write in detail on the molecular basis of cancer.......Page 148
Q. Write briefly on role of cyclins, CDK (cyclin-dependent kinases) and CDK inhibitors in regulating G₁/S cell cycle transition.......Page 149
Excessive and Autonomous Growth......Page 150
Refractoriness to Growth Inhibition (Loss of Growth-Suppressing Anti-Oncogenes)......Page 152
Q. Write briefly on angiogenesis.......Page 155
Q. Describe the mechanism and biology of invasion and metastasis.......Page 156
Initiators......Page 157
Q. Write briefly on microbial carcinogenesis.......Page 159
Q. Write briefly on laboratory diagnosis of cancer.......Page 161
Modern Aids in the Tumour Diagnosis......Page 163
Staphylococcal Infections......Page 165
Clinical Manifestations......Page 166
Diphtheria......Page 167
Plague......Page 168
Clinical Manifestations (Table 7.1)......Page 169
Neisserial Infections......Page 170
Clinical Features......Page 171
Primary Tuberculosis......Page 172
Secondary Tuberculosis......Page 174
Diagnosis......Page 175
Classification......Page 176
Classification......Page 178
Predisposing Factors......Page 179
Complications of Pneumonia......Page 180
Q. Write briefly about syphilis.......Page 181
Clinical Features......Page 182
Diagnostic Tests for Syphilis......Page 183
Pathogenesis......Page 184
Diagnosis......Page 185
Pathogenesis......Page 186
Herpes Simplex Infection......Page 187
Morphology......Page 188
Clinical Features......Page 189
Q. Write briefly about fungal infections.......Page 190
Morphology......Page 191
Aspergillosis......Page 192
Zygomycosis (Mucormycosis)......Page 193
Actinomycetoma......Page 195
Malaria......Page 196
Life Cycle (Flowchart 7.4)......Page 197
Leishmaniasis......Page 198
Cutaneous Leishmaniasis......Page 199
Pathology......Page 200
Tapeworms (Cestodes): Cysticercosis and Hydatid Disease......Page 201
Hydatid Disease......Page 202
Q. Write briefly on the structure of a gene.......Page 204
Q. Define pleiotropy.......Page 205
Q. What is chromosomal translocation?......Page 206
Genetic Abnormalities......Page 207
Clinical Features......Page 208
Clinical Features......Page 209
Clinical Features......Page 210
Q. Write briefly on Mendelian inheritance disorders.......Page 211
Q. Differentiate between the various Mendelian disorders.......Page 212
Southern Blotting......Page 213
Q. Write briefly on polymerase chain reaction (PCR).......Page 214
Q. Write briefly on array comparative genomic hybridization.......Page 215
Abnormalities in the Quantity, Structure and Function of Nonenzymatic Proteins......Page 216
Q. Write briefly on lysosomal storage diseases.......Page 217
Q. Enumerate the different teratogens and write briefly on their effects.......Page 219
Q. Write briefly on neonatal respiratory distress syndrome/hyaline membrane disease.......Page 221
Q. Define fetal hydrops. Enumerate and describe the two types of hydrops.......Page 222
Q. Enumerate the small round blue cell tumours of childhood.......Page 223
Clinical Features......Page 224
Prognosis......Page 225
Adverse Effects of Alcohol......Page 226
Smoking......Page 227
Mercury......Page 228
Q. Write briefly about the effects of climate change on human health.......Page 229
Hazards of Radiation......Page 230
Q. Write briefly about exogenous oestrogens and their effects.......Page 231
Q. Write briefly about the metabolism of vitamin A.......Page 232
Functions......Page 233
Forms of Vitamin D......Page 234
Manifestations of Vitamin D Deficiency......Page 235
Deficiency of Vitamin C (Scurvy)......Page 236
Q. Write briefly about thiamine deficiency.......Page 237
Q. Write briefly about niacin deficiency.......Page 238
Cancer-Preventing Diets......Page 239
Q. Write briefly about obesity.......Page 240
II Diseases of Organ Systems......Page 242
Arterioles......Page 243
Q. Classify vasculitis.......Page 244
Q. Describe the aetiopathogenesis of vasculitis.......Page 245
Salient Features......Page 246
Microscopy......Page 247
Clinical Features......Page 248
Pathogenesis......Page 249
Aetiopathogenesis......Page 250
Q. Write briefly about lymphangitis and lymphoedema.......Page 251
Types......Page 252
Classification......Page 253
Q. Define atherosclerosis. Enumerate the risk factors involved in the pathogenesis of atherosclerosis.......Page 255
Risk Factors......Page 256
Q. Write in brief on the pathogenesis of atherosclerosis.......Page 257
Q. Describe the pathological features and clinical consequences of atherosclerosis.......Page 258
Q. Differentiate between fatty streak and atheroma.......Page 259
Aetiological Classification of Hypertension......Page 260
Role of Cardiac Output and Peripheral Resistance in Regulation of Blood Pressure......Page 261
Effects on Heart (Hypertensive Heart Disease)......Page 262
Effects on Blood Vessels (Hypertensive Arteriolosclerosis)......Page 263
Effects on Kidneys (Hypertensive Renal Disease)......Page 264
Laboratory Work-Up of Essential Hypertension and Its Consequences......Page 265
Q. Describe the clinicopathological features of haemangiomas.......Page 266
Q. Enumerate the intermediate grade (borderline or low-grade malignant) vascular tumours and write briefly about them.......Page 267
Q. Enumerate the malignant vascular tumours and write briefly about them.......Page 268
Q. Enumerate the types of heart disease.......Page 269
Q. Define IHD. Enumerate the clinical syndromes associated with IHD.......Page 270
Q. Write briefly on the role of coronary thrombosis in the pathogenesis of IHD.......Page 271
Three Overlapping Patterns......Page 272
Incidence and Risk Factors......Page 273
Myocardial Response......Page 274
Q. Write briefly on reperfusion injury.......Page 275
Q. Enumerate the consequences and complications of acute MI.......Page 276
Q. Write briefly on the laboratory diagnosis of acute myocardial infarction (MI).......Page 277
Aetiopathogenesis......Page 278
Q. Classify congenital heart disease. Write briefly on the clinicopathological features of the various types of CHD.......Page 279
Clinical Manifestations......Page 285
Laboratory investigations for Acute Rheumatic Fever:......Page 286
Classification......Page 287
Bacterial Endocarditis......Page 288
Complications and Sequelae......Page 289
Diagnostic Criteria for Infective Endocarditis (Modified Duke’s Criteria)......Page 290
Q. Compare the morphological features of different types of endocarditis.......Page 291
Q. Write briefly on the aetiology and clinicopathological features of myocarditis.......Page 292
Q. Enumerate and describe the various types of cardiomyopathies.......Page 293
Acute Pericarditis......Page 295
Pathophysiology......Page 296
Clinical Manifestations of Heart Failure......Page 298
Diagnosis......Page 299
12 Haematology......Page 300
Q. Write briefly on haematopoietic growth factors.......Page 301
Classification of Anaemias......Page 302
Signs of Anaemia......Page 303
Q. Write in detail on iron metabolism.......Page 305
Storage and Transport of Iron......Page 306
Clinical Features......Page 307
Laboratory Diagnosis......Page 308
Classification......Page 309
Q. Describe the aetiopathogenesis, clinical features and haematologic picture of macrocytic anaemia.......Page 310
Vitamin B₁₂......Page 311
Causes of Megaloblastic Macrocytosis......Page 313
Clinical Features of Vitamin B₁₂ Deficiency......Page 314
Laboratory Diagnosis of Megaloblastic Anaemia......Page 315
Q. Outline the pathogenesis and laboratory findings of anaemia of chronic disease.......Page 317
Q. Classify haemolytic anaemia.......Page 318
Laboratory Evidence of Compensatory Erythroid Hyperplasia......Page 319
Molecular Pathology......Page 320
Q. Write briefly on G6PD deficiency anaemia.......Page 321
During Haemolytic Phase......Page 322
Clinical Features......Page 323
Q. Describe the molecular pathology, clinical features and laboratory diagnosis of thalassaemias.......Page 324
Molecular Pathology of β-Thalassaemia......Page 325
General Blood Parameters......Page 326
Peripheral Blood Smear......Page 327
Hams Test (for Definitive Diagnosis of PNH)......Page 328
Cold Antibody Autoimmune Haemolytic Anaemia......Page 329
Classification of Aplastic Anaemia......Page 330
Grading of Aplastic Anaemia......Page 331
Causes of Eosinophilia......Page 332
Q. What are leukaemoid reactions?......Page 333
Q. Define and classify polycythaemia?......Page 334
Laboratory Diagnosis......Page 335
Q. Classify leukaemias?......Page 336
Q. Write briefly on the aetiopathogenesis of leukaemias.......Page 338
Diagnosis......Page 339
Q. Differentiate between acute lymphoblastic and acute myelogenous leukaemia (or differentiate between lymphoblast and myeloblast).......Page 340
Natural Course......Page 342
Q. Differentiate between CML and myelofibrosis.......Page 344
Classification (see Table 12.17)......Page 345
Chronic Nonspecific Lymphadenitis......Page 346
RS Cell (Fig. 12.8)......Page 347
Clinicopathological Features of Hodgkin Lymphoma (Table 12.18)......Page 348
Prognosis and Treatment......Page 349
Q. Classify NHL.......Page 350
Morphology......Page 352
Mature Peripheral B-Cell Malignancies......Page 353
Common Mature Peripheral T-Cell Malignancies......Page 355
Investigations......Page 356
Investigations......Page 357
Pathology......Page 358
Diagnosis......Page 359
Q. Write briefly on the mechanism of haemostasis.......Page 360
Coagulation Factors......Page 361
Clinical Features......Page 362
Q. Write briefly on the pathophysiology of haemophilia.......Page 363
Genetics......Page 364
Causes......Page 365
Q. What are blood groups? Enumerate the important blood group systems.......Page 366
Two Types of Grouping......Page 367
Indications for Blood Transfusion......Page 368
Immediate Reactions......Page 369
Delayed Transfusion Reactions......Page 370
AIRWAYS......Page 371
Causes......Page 372
Q. Define atelectasis. Enumerate and describe its various types.......Page 373
Types......Page 374
Pathogenesis of Emphysema......Page 375
Pathogenesis (Flowchart 13.4)......Page 376
Definition......Page 377
Types......Page 378
Gross Morphology......Page 379
Complications......Page 380
Q. Differentiate between extrinsic and intrinsic asthma.......Page 381
Gross Morphology......Page 382
Complications......Page 383
Salient Features......Page 384
Histopathology......Page 385
Genetic Association......Page 386
Clinical Features......Page 387
Q. Write briefly on pulmonary eosinophilia.......Page 388
Q. Describe the clinicopathological features of occupational lung diseases.......Page 389
Q. Classify lung tumours. Briefly describe their aetiopathogenesis and morphology.......Page 393
Aetiology and Pathogenesis......Page 394
Evolution (Flowchart 13.9)......Page 395
Paraneoplastic Syndromes Associated with Bronchogenic Carcinoma......Page 397
Metastatic Tumours of Lung......Page 398
Q. Write briefly on tumours and tumour-like lesions of oral cavity.......Page 399
Morphology......Page 400
Classification......Page 401
Gross Morphology......Page 402
Microscopic Features (Fig. 14.2)......Page 403
Mucoepidermoid Carcinoma (MEC)......Page 404
Adenoid Cystic Carcinoma......Page 405
Malignant Mixed Tumours......Page 406
Symptoms......Page 407
Q. Write briefly on Barrett’s oesophagus.......Page 408
Predisposing Conditions/Factors......Page 409
Layers of Stomach......Page 410
Aetiology......Page 411
Clinical Features......Page 412
Role of H. pylori in peptic ulceration......Page 413
Complications......Page 414
Q. Differentiate between benign and malignant peptic ulcer.......Page 415
Predisposing Factors......Page 416
Classification......Page 417
Duodenum......Page 418
Clinical Features......Page 419
Q. Enumerate the morphologic features of celiac sprue.......Page 420
Q. Differentiate between tuberculous and typhoid ulcer of intestine.......Page 421
Immunological Reactions......Page 422
Gross Morphology......Page 423
Q. Differentiate between Crohn disease and ulcerative colitis.......Page 424
Q. Write briefly on amoebic colitis. Differentiate between amoebic and ulcerative colitis.......Page 425
Q. Classify polyps of the intestine and describe their clinicopatho-logical features.......Page 426
Q. Write briefly on hereditary cancer syndromes of colon.......Page 428
Previous Bowel Conditions......Page 429
Prognosis......Page 431
Q. Describe the clinicopathological features of carcinoid tumour of GIT.......Page 432
Clinical Presentation......Page 433
Acute Suppurative Appendicitis......Page 434
LIVER......Page 435
Q. Enumerate and describe the tests to assess liver function.......Page 436
Q. Define and classify jaundice.......Page 438
Classification of Jaundice......Page 439
Crigler–Najjar Syndrome—Type II......Page 440
Q. Outline the aetiology, epidemiology, clinical features and laboratory diagnosis of viral hepatitis.......Page 441
Asymptomatic Phase......Page 443
Morphological Features (Fig. 15.3)......Page 444
Classification......Page 445
Morphological Features (Fig. 15.4)......Page 446
Clinical Features......Page 447
Q. Define cirrhosis. Enumerate its causes and consequences.......Page 448
Pathogenesis......Page 449
Pathogenesis of Portal Hypertension in Cirrhosis (Flowchart 15.2)......Page 450
Pathology......Page 451
Pathology......Page 452
Aetiology......Page 453
Aetiology......Page 454
Investigations......Page 455
Salient Features......Page 456
Q. Differentiate between PBC and PSC.......Page 457
Pathogenesis......Page 458
Q. Write briefly on metastatic liver disease.......Page 459
Pathogenesis (Flowchart 15.4)......Page 460
Cholecystitis......Page 461
Complications of Cholecystitis......Page 462
PANCREAS......Page 463
Causes......Page 464
Complications......Page 465
Pancreatic Carcinoma......Page 466
Salient Features of Endocrine Tumours of the Pancreas......Page 467
NORMAL STRUCTURE......Page 468
Tubules......Page 470
URINE FORMATION......Page 471
Composition of Urine......Page 472
Q. Write in detail on examination of a urine specimen.......Page 473
Methods of Estimation of Specific Gravity......Page 474
RBCs......Page 475
Q. Enumerate renal function tests.......Page 476
Q. Differentiate between acute and chronic renal failure.......Page 477
Q. Enumerate the various glomerular syndromes.......Page 478
Q. Write in detail on the pathogenesis of glomerular injury.......Page 479
Prognosis......Page 480
Pathogenesis......Page 481
Clinicopathological Manifestations......Page 483
Pathogenesis......Page 484
Morphology (Fig. 16.7)......Page 485
Focal Segmental Glomerulosclerosis (FSGS)......Page 486
Clinical Features......Page 487
IgA Nephropathy (Berger Disease)......Page 488
Q. Differentiate between nephritic and nephrotic syndrome.......Page 489
Pathogenesis......Page 490
Types......Page 491
Clinical Features of Diabetic Glomerulosclerosis......Page 493
Types......Page 494
Q. Differentiate between ischaemic and nephrotoxic ATI.......Page 495
Q.Describe the aetiopathogenesis,gross appearance and complications of renal calculi/urolithiasis.......Page 496
RCC......Page 497
Gross Morphology......Page 498
Clinical Features......Page 499
Prognosis......Page 500
Q. Enumerate the causes of a large white kidney.......Page 501
Morphology......Page 502
Prognosis......Page 503
Q. Write briefly on cryptorchidism.......Page 504
Microscopy (Fig. 17.1)......Page 505
Clinicopathological Features of Testicular Tumours......Page 506
Q. Differentiate between seminomatous and nonseminomatous germ cell tumours.......Page 509
Q. Write briefly on the inflammatory conditions affecting penis.......Page 510
Normal Structure......Page 511
Clinical Features......Page 512
Microscopy (Fig. 17.3 A and B)......Page 513
Gross Morphology......Page 514
Diagnosis and Staging of Carcinoma Prostate......Page 515
Ovaries......Page 517
Q. Write briefly on cervical intraepithelial neoplasia (CIN).......Page 518
Microscopy......Page 519
Spread and Staging......Page 520
Q. Define endometriosis. Enumerate the theories that are proposed to explain its origin.......Page 521
Atypical Endometriosis......Page 522
2. WHO Classification......Page 523
Types (Table 18.1)......Page 524
Q. Describe the clinicopathological features of smooth muscle tumours of uterus.......Page 525
Q. Classify ovarian tumours.Write in detail on their aetiopathogenesis and clinicopathological features.......Page 526
Aetiopathogenesis of Ovarian Cancer......Page 527
Salient Features of Different Ovarian Tumours......Page 528
Microscopy......Page 533
Q. Write briefly on gestational trophoblastic disease.......Page 534
Q. Differentiate between partial and complete mole.......Page 535
Q. Differentiate between H. mole and choriocarcinoma.......Page 536
Q. Write briefly on benign epithelial lesions of the breast.......Page 537
Proliferative Breast Disease Without Atypia......Page 538
Gross Morphology......Page 539
Microscopic Features......Page 540
Classification of Carcinoma Breast......Page 541
Risk Factors for Carcinoma Breast......Page 542
Distribution of Carcinoma Breast......Page 543
Pathology of Carcinoma Breast......Page 544
Prognostic or Predictive Factors of Carcinoma Breast......Page 546
Q. Write briefly on Paget disease of breast.......Page 547
Q. Write briefly on male breast cancer.......Page 548
THYROID......Page 549
Q. Describe the etiopathogenesis and clinicopathological features of Graves disease.......Page 550
Clinical Features......Page 551
Classical Clinical Manifestations......Page 552
Types......Page 553
Q. Define and classify goitre. Describe the aetiopathogenesis, clinical manifestations and morphology of the various types of goitre.......Page 556
Q. Enumerate the salient features of a solitary nodule of thyroid.......Page 558
Types......Page 559
Q. Classify malignant lesions of thyroid. Describe the pathogenesis, clinicopathological features and prognosis of various thyroid malignancies.......Page 560
PARATHYROID GLAND......Page 563
Q. Classify hyperparathyroidism. Describe the salient clinicopatho-logical features of the various types of hyperparathyroidism.......Page 564
Q. Describe the causes and clinicopathological features of the various types of hypoparathyroidism.......Page 566
Clinical Features......Page 567
Types......Page 568
Q. Write briefly on the causes, clinical features and morphology of adrenal insufficiency.......Page 569
Q. Enumerate adrenocortical neoplasms and describe their salient features.......Page 570
Q. Define and classify diabetes mellitus (DM). Describe its pathogenesis, clinical features and complications.......Page 571
Complications of DM......Page 576
Morphology of Diabetes and its Late Complications......Page 577
Determination of Blood Glucose......Page 578
2-h Postprandial Plasma Glucose......Page 579
Major Risk Factors for Type 2 DM (ADA 2010)......Page 580
Diabetic Ketoacidosis......Page 581
Nonketotic Hyperosmolar Coma......Page 582
Q. What is gestation diabetes?......Page 583
Structure......Page 584
Microscopic Structure of Bone......Page 585
Classification......Page 586
Q. Classify primary bone tumours and describe their salient features.......Page 588
Osteoma......Page 589
Osteoblastoma......Page 590
Osteogenic Sarcoma (OS)......Page 591
Osteochondroma (Exostosis)......Page 593
Chondroma......Page 594
Clinical Features......Page 595
Microscopy (Fig. 21.10)......Page 596
Classification......Page 597
Q. Describe the gross and microscopic features of giant cell tumour of bone.......Page 598
Gross Morphology (Fig. 21.14)......Page 599
Q. Enumerate the other giant cell containing lesions of bone. How is GCT of bone differentiated from other giant cell containing lesions?......Page 600
Prognosis......Page 601
Q. Enumerate the various cystic lesions of bone. Describe their clinical and pathological features.......Page 602
Q.Enlist the salient clinicopathological features of hyperparathyroidism.......Page 604
Q.Enlist the salient clinicopathological features of renal osteodystrophy.......Page 605
Clinical Features......Page 606
Fibrous Dysplasia (FD)......Page 607
Pathogenesis......Page 608
Clinical Features......Page 609
Extra-Articular Manifestations of RA......Page 610
Morphology......Page 611
Q. Enumerate the various crystallopathies.......Page 612
Pathology......Page 613
Q. Classify disorders of muscle.......Page 614
Laboratory Findings......Page 615
Q. Summarize the clinicopathological features of soft tissue tumours.......Page 616
Definitions of Macroscopic Terms......Page 618
Q. Write briefly on eczematous dermatitis.......Page 619
Q. Enumerate and describe chronic inflammatory dermatoses.......Page 620
Q. Write briefly on blistering or bullous disorders.......Page 621
Q. Write briefly on seborrheic keratosis.......Page 622
Q. Describe the clinicopathological features of squamous cell carcinoma (SCC).......Page 623
Q. Describe the clinicopathological features of basal cell carcinoma (BCC).......Page 624
Q. Describe the clinicopathological features of melanocytic disorders of the skin.......Page 625
Malignant Melanoma......Page 626
Glial Cells......Page 628
Meninges......Page 629
Q. Write in detail on laboratory diagnosis of meningitis.......Page 630
Major Patterns of CNS Involvement in Neurosyphilis......Page 632
Q. Write briefly on viral encephalitis.......Page 633
1. Primary Tumours......Page 634
Types......Page 635
Medulloblastoma......Page 637
Meningioma......Page 638
C......Page 640
F......Page 641
J......Page 642
N......Page 643
T......Page 644
Z......Page 645