Concise Encyclopedia of Science and Technology of Wine

Cover\nHalf Title\nTitle Page\nCopyright Page\nTable of Contents\nPreface\nEditors\nContributors\nUnit 1 Introduction, Role, Composition and Therapeutic Values\n	Chapter 1 Wine and Brandy: An Overview\n		1.1 Introduction\n		1.2 Science and Technology of WineMaking\n		1.3 Origin and History of Vine and Wine\n			1.3.1 Viticulture\n			1.3.2 Wine Mission for California\n			1.3.3 Wine: Historical Aspects\n			1.3.4 New Alcoholic Beverages\n			1.3.5 Yeast and Alcoholic Fermentation – Origin and History\n			1.3.6 Barrels and Silicone Bung\n		1.4 Wine Regions\n			1.4.1 Old World Wine\n				1.4.1.1 Italian Wines\n				1.4.1.2 French Wine Regions\n				1.4.1.3 Spanish Wines\n				1.4.1.4 German Wines\n				1.4.1.5 Portuguese Wines\n				1.4.1.6 English Wines\n				1.4.1.7 Wines of the Balkans\n			1.4.2 New World Wine\n				1.4.2.1 Wines of the United States\n				1.4.2.2 Chilean Wines\n				1.4.2.3 Australian Wines\n				1.4.2.4 Canadian Wines\n				1.4.2.5 South African Wines\n				1.4.2.6 New Zealand Wines\n				1.4.2.7 India\n				1.4.2.8 China\n				1.4.2.9 Japan\n		1.5 Brandy: Origin, History, and Production\n			1.5.1 French Brandies\n			1.5.2 Spanish Brandies\n			1.5.3 Italian Brandies\n			1.5.4 German Brandies\n			1.5.5 United States Brandies\n			1.5.6 Latin American Brandies\n			1.5.7 Brandies from around the World\n			1.5.8 Fruit Brandies\n		1.6 Wine as Food, Medicine and Health\n		1.7 Distribution of the World’s Grapevines\n			1.7.1 Distribution\n			1.7.2 Diversity of Varieties\n		1.8 Wine Production\n			1.8.1 Fruits for Wine Making\n			1.8.2 Winemaking – the Process\n				1.8.2.1 Extraction of Juice and Must Preparation\n			1.8.3 Microorganisms and Wine Fermentation\n			1.8.4 Wine Clarification\n			1.8.5 Wine Maturation and Aging\n			1.8.6 Waste from a Winery\n		1.9 Evaluation of Wine Composition and Quality\n			1.9.1 Wine Composition\n			1.9.2 Quality of Wine\n			1.9.3 Evaluation of Wine\n			1.9.4 Sensory Quality of Wine and Consumerisms\n		1.10 Setting up a Winery\n			1.10.1 Requirements and Regulations\n		1.11 Some Hazards Specific to Winemaking\n		1.12 Climatic Change, Environmental Issues, and Wine Production\n		1.13 Wine Production, Consumption, Marketing, and International Trade\n			1.13.1 Area under Vineyards and Wine Production\n			1.13.2 Wine Consumption\n			1.13.3 International Trade\n			1.13.4 Main Exporters\n			1.13.5 Main Importers\n		1.14 Wine Tourism\n		Bibliography\n	Chapter 2 Categories and Main Characteristics of Wines, Wine-Products and Wine Spirits\n		2.1 Introduction\n		2.2 Wines\n			2.2.1 Still Wines\n				2.2.1.1 White Wines\n				2.2.1.2 Dry White Wines\n				2.2.1.3 Sweet, Not Fortified White Wines\n			2.2.2 Rosé Wines\n			2.2.3 Red Wines\n				2.2.3.1 Dry Red Wines\n				2.2.3.2 Sweet, Not Fortified Red Wines\n			2.2.4 Sparkling Wines\n				2.2.4.1 Traditional Method\n				2.2.4.2 Transfer Method\n				2.2.4.3 Cuvée Close Method\n				2.2.4.4 Other Types of Sparkling Wines\n				2.2.4.5 Aerated Sparkling Wines\n			2.2.5 Liqueur Wines\n				2.2.5.1 Sherry and Similar Wines\n				2.2.5.2 Port\n				2.2.5.3 Madeira\n				2.2.5.4 Other European Sweet Liqueur-Wines\n			2.2.6 Mistelles\n		2.3 Aromatised Wine-Products\n			2.3.1 Aromatised Wines\n				2.3.1.1 Vermouth\n				2.3.1.2 Bitter Aromatised Wines\n				2.3.1.3 Egg-Based Aromatised Wines\n				2.3.1.4 Väkevä viiniglögi/Starvinsglögg\n			2.3.2 Aromatised Wine-Based Drinks\n				2.3.2.1 Sangría/Sangria\n				2.3.2.2 Clarea\n				2.3.2.3 Zurra\n				2.3.2.4 Bitter Soda\n				2.3.2.5 Kalte Ente\n				2.3.2.6 Glühwein\n				2.3.2.7 Viiniglögi/Vinglögg/Karštas vynas\n				2.3.2.8 Maiwein\n				2.3.2.9 Maitrank\n				2.3.2.10 Pelin\n				2.3.2.11 Aromatizovaný Dezert\n			2.3.3 Aromatised Wine-Product Cocktails\n		2.4 Beverages Obtained by Dealcoholisation of Wine\n		2.5 Fruit Wines\n			2.5.1 Apple Wines\n			2.5.2 Other Fruit Wines\n		2.6 Wine Spirits and Brandies\n			2.6.1 Wine Spirits\n				2.6.1.1 Wine Spirits of France\n				2.6.1.2 Wine Spirits of Other Countries\n			2.6.2 Brandies\n			2.6.3 Raisin Brandy\n			2.6.4 Grape Marc Spirit\n		2.7 Legislation\n			2.7.1 OIV\n			2.7.2 European Legislation\n		Bibliography\n	Chapter 3 Wine: Composition and Nutritive Value\n		3.1 Introduction\n		3.2 Composition of Grape Must and Wine\n			3.2.1 Water\n			3.2.2 Alcohols\n				3.2.2.1 Ethanol\n				3.2.2.2 Higher Alcohols\n				3.2.2.3 Methanol\n			3.2.3 Acids\n			3.2.4 Carbohydrates\n			3.2.5 Phenolic Compounds\n				3.2.5.1 Tannins\n				3.2.5.2 Pigments\n			3.2.6 Flavoring Compounds\n				3.2.6.1 Terpenes\n				3.2.6.2 Esters\n				3.2.6.3 Carbonyl Compounds\n				3.2.6.4 Phenols\n				3.2.6.5 Acetic Acid\n				3.2.6.6 Mercaptan Compounds\n				3.2.6.7 Miscellaneous Compounds\n			3.2.7 Nitrogenous Components\n			3.2.8 Minerals\n			3.2.9 Vitamins\n			3.2.10 Sulfites\n			3.2.11 Enzymes\n		3.3 Vinification Practices and Composition of Wine\n			3.3.1 Vintage Factors\n			3.3.2 Enological Practices\n			3.3.3 Yeast Strains\n			3.3.4 Biological Aging\n			3.3.5 Gluconic Acid Consumption\n			3.3.6 Aging in Wood\n			3.3.7 SO2 Concentration in the Must\n		Bibliography\n	Chapter 4 Aromatic Composition of Wine\n		4.1 Introduction\n		4.2 Role of Aroma Compounds\n		4.3 Chemistry of Aroma\n		4.4 Origin of Various Components\n			4.4.1 Varietal Aromas\n			4.4.2 Pre-Fermentative Aromas\n			4.4.3 Fermentative Aromas\n			4.4.4 Post-Fermentative or Ageing Aromas\n		4.5 Sensory Impact of Different Aroma Compounds\n		4.6 Factors Influencing Various Aroma Components\n			4.6.1 Factors Influencing the Biosynthesis of Varietal Aroma Compounds\n				4.6.1.1 Luminosity Effect on the Profile of Carotenoid Precursors\n				4.6.1.2 Effect of Pruning System on Glycosidic Tannat Grape Compounds\n				4.6.1.3 Effect of Over-Ripening on the Appearance of Eucalyptus Notes\n			4.6.2 Factors Influencing the Biosynthesis of Aromatic Components by Yeasts\n				4.6.2.1 Effect of Yeast Assimilable Nitrogen in Fermentation Media\n				4.6.2.2 Effect of the Inoculum Size\n				4.6.2.3 Effect of Redox State on Volatile Compounds Produced During the Fermentation Process\n				4.6.2.4 Effect of Yeast Diversity on Flavour\n		4.7 Different Techniques of Winemaking and Aroma\n		4.8 Aroma Profile of Different Wine Styles\n		4.9 Brandy\n		Bibliography\n	Chapter 5 Wine: Therapeutic Potential\n		5.1 Introduction\n		5.2 Health Effects\n			5.2.1 Potential Cardiovascular Effects of Wine\n			5.2.2 Other Potential Inter-Related Health Effects of Wine\n		5.3 Potential Biological Wine Components\n			5.3.1 Ethanol Component\n			5.3.2 Polyphenolic Component\n				5.3.2.1 Flavonoids\n				5.3.2.2 Non-Flavonoids\n		5.4 Potential Biological Activities of Wine Components on the Cardiovascular System\n			5.4.1 Effects of the Ethanol Component of Wine\n				5.4.1.1 Peroxidative Effects\n				5.4.1.2 Effect on High Density Lipoproteins\n				5.4.1.3 Haemostatic Effects\n				5.4.1.4 Other Effects\n			5.4.2 Effects of the Polyphenolic Components of Wine\n				5.4.2.1 Bioavailability of Wine-Derived Phenolic Compounds\n				5.4.2.2 Antiatherogenic Effects of the Wine-Derived Phenolic Compounds\n				5.4.2.3 Haemostatic Effects of the Wine-Derived Phenolic Compounds\n				5.4.2.4 Other Potential Cardioprotective Effects of the Phenolic Compounds\n				5.4.2.5 Structure Activity Relationships\n		5.5 Dietary Pattern and Lifestyle of Wine Consumers for Health\n		Bibliography\n	Chapter 6 Wine Consumption: Toxicological Aspects\n		6.1 Introduction\n		6.2 The Role of Ethanol\n			6.2.1 Ethanol Nutrient\n			6.2.2 Moderate Consumption and Cardioprotective Effects\n			6.2.3 Alcoholism – Individual and Social Consequences\n		6.3 The Role of Methanol\n		6.4 The Role of Ethyl Carbamate\n		6.5 The Role of Biogenic Amines\n		6.6 The Role of Nitrosamines\n		6.7 The Role of a Mycotoxin – Ochratoxin A (OTA)\n		6.8 Scope for Future Research\n		Acknowledgments\n		Bibliography\nUnit 2 Viticulture for the Winemaker\n	Chapter 7 Winemaking: Fruit Cultivars\n		7.1 Introduction\n		7.2 Winegrape Varieties\n		7.3 White Wine Varieties\n			7.3.1 Chardonnay\n			7.3.2 Chenin Blanc\n			7.3.3 Gewurztraminer\n			7.3.4 Muller Thurgau\n			7.3.5 Muscat Blanc\n			7.3.6 Parellada\n			7.3.7 Pinot Blanc\n			7.3.8 Pinot Gris\n			7.3.9 Riesling\n			7.3.10 Sauvignon Blanc\n			7.3.11 Semillion\n			7.3.12 Traminer\n			7.3.13 Trebhiano\n			7.3.14 Verdiccio\n			7.3.15 Viognier\n			7.3.16 Viura\n			7.3.17 Welschriesling\n			7.3.18 Xarel-Lo\n		7.4 Red Wine Varieties\n			7.4.1 Barbera\n			7.4.2 Cabernet Sauvignon\n			7.4.3 Carignane\n			7.4.4 Gamay\n			7.4.5 Grenache\n			7.4.6 Malbec\n			7.4.7 Merlot\n			7.4.8 Monastrell\n			7.4.9 Nebbiolo\n			7.4.10 Pinot Noir\n			7.4.11 Sangiovese\n			7.4.12 Shiraz/Syrah\n			7.4.13 Temperanillo\n			7.4.14 Zinfandel\n			7.4.15 Local Wine Grape Varieties\n		7.5 Cultivation Practices\n			7.5.1 Effects of Vineyard Location\n				7.5.1.1 Climate\n				7.5.1.2 Topography\n				7.5.1.3 Soils\n			7.5.2 Varietal Selection\n			7.5.3 Canopy Management\n				7.5.3.1 Over-Cropping\n			7.5.4 Training and Pruning\n				7.5.4.1 Initial Training\n				7.5.4.2 Trellising\n				7.5.4.3 Training Systems\n				7.5.4.4 Pruning\n				7.5.4.5 Radiation Inception\n		7.6 Vine Balance\n		7.7 Antibrowning and Antioxidant Aactivities in Unripe Grapes\n		7.8 New Techniques from Vineyard of the Future (VoF)\n		7.9 Other Fruits Suitable for Making Fruit Wines\n			7.9.1 Cider\n			7.9.2 Perry\n		Bibliography\n	Chapter 8 Genetic Engineering in Grapes\n		8.1 Introduction\n		8.2 Methods of Genetic Transformation\n			8.2.1 Agrobacterium-Mediated Gene Transfer\n			8.2.2 Biolistic – Mediated Transformation\n			8.2.3 Electroporation\n			8.2.4 Polyethylene Glycol (peg) Mediated Uptake of DNA\n			8.2.5 Silicon Carbide Fibers\n			8.2.6 Laser-Mediated Transformation\n			8.2.7 CRISPR/Cas Immune System Engineering\n		8.3 Genetic Transformation System in Grapes\n			8.3.1 Gene Introduction and Expression\n				8.3.1.1 Gene Transfer for Specific Traits\n			8.3.2 Mining R Genes\n			8.3.3 Production of Antimicrobial Compounds\n			8.3.4 Genome Editing\n		8.4 Development and Release of Transgenics in Grapes\n		Bibliography\n	Chapter 9 Grape Maturation\n		9.1 Introduction\n		9.2 General Grape Berry Composition\n			9.2.1 Water\n			9.2.2 Sugars\n			9.2.3 Organic Acids\n			9.2.4 Phenolic Compounds\n			9.2.5 Aroma and Flavor Compounds\n			9.2.6 Nitrogen and Mineral Compounds\n		9.3 Dynamic of Main Individual Compound Evolution during Grape Maturation\n			9.3.1 Sugars and Organic Acids\n			9.3.2 Phenolic Compounds\n			9.3.3 Aroma and Aroma Precursors\n			9.3.4 Mineral, Nitrogen and other Minor Compounds\n		9.4 Methodologies for Grape Maturation Control – Key Concepts\n		Bibliography\n	Chapter 10 Wine Quality: Varietal Influence\n		10.1 Introduction\n		10.2 Factors Affecting Wine Aroma and Quality\n			10.2.1 Varieties\n			10.2.2 Volatile Constituents Contributing to Wine Aroma and Quality\n				10.2.2.1 Glycosidic Precursors\n				10.2.2.2 Phenolic Substances\n				10.2.2.3 Methoxypyrazines\n				10.2.2.4 Lactones\n				10.2.2.5 Volatile Sulphur Compounds and Thiols\n			10.2.3 Pre-Harvest Factors Affecting Wine Quality and Aroma\n			10.2.4 Processing Factors Affecting Wine Flavour, Aroma, and Quality\n				10.2.4.1 Influence of Vinification Treatments on the Aroma Constituents\n				10.2.4.2 Effect of Yeast Strains on Wine Quality\n				10.2.4.3 Qualitative Changes in the Volatiles During Aging\n		Bibliography\n	Chapter 11 Diseases of Grapes\n		11.1 Introduction\n		11.2 Main Diseases of Grapes\n			11.2.1 Diseases Which Mainly Affect the Vine\n				11.2.1.1 Downy Mildew\n				11.2.1.2 Powdery Mildew\n				11.2.1.3 Black Rot\n				11.2.1.4 Dead Arm or Excoriose\n				11.2.1.5 Anthracnose\n				11.2.1.6 Bacterial Blight and Pierce’s Disease\n				11.2.1.7 Grapevine Leaf Roll\n				11.2.1.8 Grapevine Trunk Diseases\n			11.2.2 Diseases Which Mainly Affect the Grapes: Bunch Rots\n				11.2.2.1 Grey Mould\n				11.2.2.2 Sour Rot\n				11.2.2.3 Black Mould\n				11.2.2.4 Blue Mould\n				11.2.2.5 Alternaria Rot\n				11.2.2.6 Brown Spot or Cladosporium Rot\n				11.2.2.7 Ripe Rot\n				11.2.2.8 Bitter Rot\n				11.2.2.9 White Rot\n				11.2.2.10 Rhizopus Rot\n				11.2.2.11 Other Bunch Rots\n			11.2.3 Bunch Rot Management\n				11.2.3.1 Vineyard Site Selection, Preparation and Planting\n				11.2.3.2 Variety Selection\n				11.2.3.3 Vineyard Management Practices\n				11.2.3.4 Fungicides\n		11.3 Approaches in Disease Managment\n		Bibliography\n	Chapter 12 Wine Production and Botrytis\n		12.1 Introduction\n		12.2 Historical Developments\n		12.3 Types of Botrytised Wines\n			12.3.1 Tokaji Aszu\n			12.3.2 German Botrytised Wines\n			12.3.3 French Botrytised Wines\n		12.4 Pathogenesis\n			12.4.1 Dissemination of Conidia, Germination, and Penetration of Berries\n			12.4.2 Role of Fungal Enzymes in Invasion of Tissues\n			12.4.3 Defence Response of Infected Tissues\n			12.4.4 Predisposing Factors for Berry Infection\n			12.4.5 In Vitro Establishment of B. cinerea in the Must\n		12.5 Grape, B. cinerea, and Wine Chemistry\n			12.5.1 Changes in Grape Sugars\n			12.5.2 Changes in Grape Acids\n			12.5.3 Evolution of Nitrogenous Substances\n			12.5.4 Evolution of Enzymes\n			12.5.5 Changes in Phenolic Compounds\n			12.5.6 Evolution of Aromatic and Other Compounds\n		12.6 Determination of B. cinerea Infection\n		12.7 Winemaking from Botryised Grapes\n			12.7.1 Harvesting of Grapes\n			12.7.2 Preparation of Must\n			12.7.3 Alcoholic Fermentation\n		Bibliography\n	Chapter 13 Vineyard Mechanization\n		13.1 Introduction\n		13.2 Full Mechanization of the Double Curtain\n		13.3 Principles of New Vineyard Planning\n		13.4 New Fully Mechanizable Training Systems\n			13.4.1 Free Cordon\n			13.4.2 Moveable Free Cordon\n			13.4.3 Moveable Spur-Pruned Cordon\n			13.4.4 COMBI System\n			13.4.5 Semi-Minimal Pruned Hedge\n		13.5 Extending Mechanization to other Management Practices\n			13.5.1 Post-Sprouting Shoot Thinning\n			13.5.2 Pre-Bloom Leaf Removal\n			13.5.3 Mechanical Cluster Thinning after Berry Development\n			13.5.4 Post-Véraison Shoot Trimming, Mechanical Defoliation or Antitranspirant Canopy Spray\n		13.6 Machines\n			13.6.1 Trimming Machines\n			13.6.2 Pre-Trimming Machines\n			13.6.3 Vine-Shoot Removers\n			13.6.4 Electronic Pruner\n			13.6.5 Hedge Bush Cutter\n			13.6.6 Pruning Machines\n			13.6.7 Shoot Thinning and Binding\n			13.6.8 Leaf Removal\n				13.6.8.1 Leaf Removal Machines\n			13.6.9 Grape Harvesters (Harvesting Process and Machine Functionality)\n			13.6.10 Wind Machines\n			13.6.11 Heaters\n			13.6.12 Over-Vine Sprinkler Systems\n			13.6.13 Sprayers\n			13.6.14 Drones\n			13.6.15 Vineyard Mowers\n			13.6.16 Vineyard Cane Sweepers\n		13.7 Future Trends\n		Bibliography\nUnit 3 Microbiology and Biochemistry of Wine Production\n	Chapter 14 Wine Microbiology\n		14.1 Introduction\n		14.2 Diversity and Ecology of Microorganisms in Grape Must and Wines\n			14.2.1 Moulds\n			14.2.2 Yeasts\n				14.2.2.1 Non-Saccharomyces Wine Yeasts\n			14.2.3 Bacteria\n				14.2.3.1 Lactic Acid Bacteria\n				14.2.3.2 Acetic Acid Bacteria\n		14.3 Microbiology of Wine Production\n			14.3.1 Winemaking Process\n			14.3.2 Fermentative Process\n				14.3.2.1 Microbiological Stages of Fermentation\n				14.3.2.2 Malolactic Fermentation\n			14.3.3 Biological Deacidification by Schizosaccharomyces pombe\n			14.3.4 Microbial Interactions in Wine Preparation\n			14.3.5 Sequential/Mixed Cultures in Improvement of Wine Quality\n				14.3.5.1 Mixed Cultures of Yeasts in Winemaking\n				14.3.5.2 Sequential Inoculations\n			14.3.6 Contribution of Microorganisms to Sensory Properties of Wine\n				14.3.6.1 Impact on Colour – Formation of Derived Anthocyanin Compounds by Yeast\n				14.3.6.2 Impact of Microorganisms on Wine Aroma\n			14.3.7 Special Vinifications\n				14.3.7.1 Sherry Wines\n				14.3.7.2 Sparkling Wine\n				14.3.7.3 Non-Grape Wines\n			14.3.8 Wine Aging in Tanks, Barrels and Bottled Wine. Apparition of Undesirable Microorganisms\n				14.3.8.1 Yeast\n				14.3.8.2 Acetic acid bacteria\n				14.3.8.3 Lactic acid bacteria\n		14.4 Factors Affecting WINE MICROORGANISMS PREVENTION OF wine SPOILAGE\n			14.4.1 Factors Affecting Wine Yeasts\n			14.4.2 Preservative Used in Wine\n				14.4.2.1 Sulphur Dioxide\n				14.4.2.2 Dimethyl Dicarbonate (DMDC)\n				14.4.2.3 Lysozyme\n				14.4.2.4 Sorbic Acid\n				14.4.2.5 Fumaric Acid\n			14.4.3 Biological Control of Wine Spoilage\n		Bibliography\n	Chapter 15 Wine Production: Role of Non-Saccharomyces Yeast\n		15.1 Introduction\n		15.2 Wine Yeast, Ecology and Fermentation\n			15.2.1 Wine Yeasts\n			15.2.2 Non-Saccharomyces Yeasts and Their Ecology\n			15.2.3 Behaviour During Wine Fermentation\n		15.3 Influence of Non-Saccharomyces Yeasts over Unique Enological Characteristics\n			15.3.1 Enzymatic Activity of Non-Saccharomyces Yeasts\n			15.3.2 Non-Saccharomyces Strains for the Production of Esters\n			15.3.3 Ethanol Tolerance of Non-Saccharomyces Wine Yeast\n			15.3.4 Reduction in Ethanol Yield in Wines Using Non-Saccharomyces Yeasts\n			15.3.5 Role of Yeast in Deacidification of Wine\n			15.3.6 Non-Saccharomyces Yeast in Sparkling Wine Production\n			15.3.7 Killer Toxin Production\n		15.4 Conclusion\n		Bibliography\n	Chapter 16 Understanding Wine Yeasts\n		16.1 Introduction\n		16.2 Origin and Evolution of Wine Yeast Strains\n		16.3 Techniques for Identification and Characterization of Wine Yeast Strains\n			16.3.1 Classical Techniques\n			16.3.2 Molecular Techniques\n				16.3.2.1 Study of Chromosomal Polymorphism by Electrophoretic Karyotyping\n				16.3.2.2 RFLPs of Mitochondrial DNA\n				16.3.2.3 Methods Based on PCR Amplification\n		16.4 Wine Yeast Growth and Nutrition\n			16.4.1 Alcoholic Fermentation\n			16.4.2 Yeast Nutrition\n				16.4.2.1 Source of Carbon\n				16.4.2.2 Nitrogen Source\n				16.4.2.3 Biogenic Compounds\n				16.4.2.4 Mineral Elements\n				16.4.2.5 Growth Factors\n		16.5 Kinetics of Growth\n		16.6 Factors Affecting Wine Yeast Growth\n			16.6.1 Chemical Composition of Grape Must\n			16.6.2 Antimicrobial Components\n			16.6.3 Physical Factors Affecting Yeast Growth\n				16.6.3.1 Temperature\n				16.6.3.2 Aeration\n			16.6.4 Biological Factors Affecting Yeast Growth\n				16.6.4.1 Microbe-Microbe Interactions\n		16.7 Autolysis\n		16.8 Spanish \"Fino\" Sherry Wines\n		Bibliography\n	Chapter 17 Biochemical Facets of Winemaking\n		17.1 Introduction\n		17.2 Carbon Metabolism\n			17.2.1 Glycolysis\n				17.2.1.1 Transport of Sugars into the Cell\n				17.2.1.2 Phosphorylation of Sugars\n			17.2.2 Metabolism of Pyruvate\n				17.2.2.1 Fermentation\n			17.2.3 Regulation of Carbon Metabolism and Glycolysis\n			17.2.4 Minor End-Products of Sugar Metabolism\n				17.2.4.1 Higher (Fusel) Alcohol and Polyols and Other Related Compounds\n				17.2.4.2 Volatile and Non-Volatile Organic Acids\n			17.2.5 Decomposition of Organic Acids\n		17.3 Nitrogen Metabolism\n			17.3.1 Nitrogen Source\n			17.3.2 Nitrogen Supplements\n			17.3.3 Amino Acid Utilization Profile\n			17.3.4 Uptake and Transport of Nitrogen Compounds\n			17.3.5 Factors Affecting Nitrogen Accumulation\n			17.3.6 Metabolism of Nitrogen\n		17.4 Sulfur Metabolism\n			17.4.1 Assimilation of Reduced Sulfur\n		17.5 Production of Off-Flavor\n		17.6 Fermentation Bouquet and Yeast Flavor Compounds\n		Bibliography\n	Chapter 18 Malolactic Fermentation in Winemaking\n		18.1 Introduction\n		18.2 Deacidification by Malolactic Conversion\n		18.3 Bacteriological Stability Following Malolactic Fermentation\n		18.4 Inoculation and Controlling the Malolactic Fermentation\n			18.4.1 Inoculation for Malolactic Fermentation\n			18.4.2 Cultivation of Wine Related-Lactic Acid Bacteria\n			18.4.3 Constraining Bacterial Growth\n			18.4.4 Elimination of Viable Bacteria\n				18.4.4.1 Treatment of Wine with Chemical Inhibitors\n				18.4.4.2 Treatment of Wine with Natural Products\n		18.5 Monitoring of Malolactic Fermentation\n		18.6 Identification of Malolactic Bacteria\n			18.6.1 Biochemical Identification\n			18.6.2 Genetic Identification\n		18.7 Flavour Changes and Malolactic Fermentation\n			18.7.1 Organic Acids and Production of Diacetyl from Citric Acid\n			18.7.2 Carbohydrates\n			18.7.3 Phenolic Compounds\n			18.7.4 Glycosidase Activity\n			18.7.5 Mousy Off-Flavor\n			18.7.6 Other LAB Metabolisms Involved in Wine Quality\n			18.7.7 Sensory Aspects of Malolactic Fermentation\n		Bibliography\n	Chapter 19 Genetic Engineering of Microorganisms in Winemaking\n		19.1 Introduction\n		19.2 Life Cycle of Wine Yeast\n		19.3 Genetic Background of Wine Yeasts\n			19.3.1 Chromosomal DNA\n			19.3.2 Extra-Chromosomal DNA\n			19.3.3 Mitochondrial DNA\n			19.3.4 Killer Factors\n		19.4 Genetic Techniques for Development of Wine Yeast Strains\n			19.4.1 Selection of Natural Variants\n			19.4.2 Random Mutagenesis and Selection\n			19.4.3 Adaptive Evolution\n			19.4.4 Hybridization\n			19.4.5 Rare Mating and cytoduction\n			19.4.6 Mass Mating and Genome Shuffling\n			19.4.7 Protoplast Fusion\n			19.4.8 Recombinant DNA Technology\n			19.4.9 Vectors Used in Yeast Transformation\n				19.4.9.1 Yeast Centromere Plasmid (YCp)\n				19.4.9.2 Yeast Replicating Plasmids (YRp)\n				19.4.9.3 Integrating Plasmid Vector (YIp)\n				19.4.9.4 Yeast Episomal Plasmids (YEp)\n			19.4.10 Yeast Artificial Chromosomes (YACs)\n			19.4.11 Gene Transfer Techniques\n			19.4.12 Stabilization of Transformants\n		19.5 Targets for Wine Yeast Strain Development\n			19.5.1 Improved Viability and Vitality of Active Dried Wine Yeast Starter Cultures\n			19.5.2 Efficient Sugar Utilization\n			19.5.3 Fermenting High-Sugar Juices\n			19.5.4 Improved Nitrogen Assimilation\n			19.5.5 Improved Ethanol Tolerance\n			19.5.6 Improvement of Wine Flavour and Other Sensory Qualities\n			19.5.7 Enhanced Liberation of Grape Terpenoids\n			19.5.8 Enhanced Production of Desirable Volatile Esters\n			19.5.9 Optimized Fusel Oil Production\n			19.5.10 Enhanced Glycerol Production\n			19.5.11 Bio-Adjustment of Wine Acidity\n			19.5.12 Elimination of Phenolic Off-Flavour\n			19.5.13 Reduced Sulphite and Sulphide Production\n			19.5.14 Reduced Formation of Ethyl Carbamate\n			19.5.15 Improved Biological Control of Wine Spoilage Microorganisms\n			19.5.16 Flocculation\n		19.6 Statutory Regulation and Consumer Demands\n		Bibliography\nUnit 4 Factors Affecting Winemaking, Control and Improvement\n	Chapter 20 Winemaking and Killer Yeasts\n		20.1 Introduction\n		20.2 Biology and Genetics of Killer Yeasts\n		20.3 Classification of Killer Yeasts, Their Prevalence and Isolation\n			20.3.1 Classification\n			20.3.2 Site of Action\n			20.3.3 Prevalence of Killer Strains\n			20.3.4 Method of Isolation\n		20.4 Killer Systems\n			20.4.1 Killer Systems Associated with dsRNA Plasmids\n			20.4.2 Killer Systems Associated with Linear DNA Plasmids\n			20.4.3 Other Killer Systems\n		20.5 Characterisation of Killer Toxins\n		20.6 Biosynthesis and Secretion of Killer Toxins\n		20.7 Mode of Action of Killer Toxins\n		20.8 Ecology of Killer Yeasts\n		20.9 Influence of Killer Yeasts in Wine Fermentation\n		20.10 Role and Application of Killer Yeasts in Winemaking\n			20.10.1 Winemaking\n			20.10.2 Sparkling Winemaking\n			20.10.3 Stuck and Sluggish Fermentation\n		Bibliography\n	Chapter 21 Winemaking Problem: Stuck and Sluggish Fermentation\n		21.1 Introduction\n		21.2 Microbial Activity and Fermentation\n		21.3 Stuck Fermentation: Concept and Importance\n		21.4 Influential Factors for Stuck and Sluggish Fermentation\n			21.4.1 Nutrient Restriction\n			21.4.2 Ethanol\n			21.4.3 Oxygen\n			21.4.4 Toxic Substances\n				21.4.4.1 Exogenous Toxic Substances: Pesticide Residues\n			21.4.5 Temperature\n			21.4.6 pH\n			21.4.7 Enological Practices\n		21.5 Restoring Stuck Fermentation\n		Bibliography\n	Chapter 22 Enzymes in Enology\n		22.1 Introduction\n		22.2 Enzymes from Grapes\n			22.2.1 Oxido-Reductases\n			22.2.2 Pectinases\n			22.2.3 Proteases\n			22.2.4 Glycosidases\n		22.3 Enzymes Derived from Microorganisms\n			22.3.1 Yeasts and Fungi\n				22.3.1.1 Proteases\n				22.3.1.2 Glycosidases\n			22.3.2 Enzymes of Botrytis cinerea\n			22.3.3 Enzymes of Lactic Acid Bacteria\n				22.3.3.1 Enzymes of Oenococcus oeni\n		22.4 Commercial Enzyme Preparations\n			22.4.1 Changes of Wine Composition by Pectic Enzyme Preparations\n			22.4.2 Extraction and Stabilization of Wine Pigments by Pectinase Preparations\n			22.4.3 Glucanase and Lysozyme Preparations in Winemaking\n		Bibliography\n	Chapter 23 Winemaking: Control and Modeling\n		23.1 Introduction\n		23.2 Description of Alcoholic Fermentation Kinetics\n		23.3 Mathematical Description of the Principal Physiological Phenomena\n			23.3.1 Yeast Growth Kinetics\n			23.3.2 Substrate Consumption Kinetics\n			23.3.3 Product Formation Kinetics\n		23.4 Non-Physiological Mathematical Descriptions\n		23.5 Non-Physiological Description by Means of Artificial Intelligence Methods\n		23.6 The Influence of Temperature\n		23.7 The Control of the Fermentation Process in Winemaking\n		23.8 Fermentation Control Today\n		23.9 A New Control System: The Fuzzy Control in Winemaking\n		Nomenclature\n		Bibliography\nUnit 5 Process of Winemaking\n	Chapter 24 Winemaking: Fermentation Operations Machinery and Equipment\n		24.1 Introduction\n		24.2 Setting up of Winery\n			24.2.1 Wine Yeast Culture\n		24.3 Pre-Fermentation Equipment\n			24.3.1 Grape Crushers\n			24.3.2 Conveyers and Pumps\n			24.3.3 Pumps and Transfer Lines\n		24.4 Fermentation Equipment\n			24.4.1 Fermenter\n			24.4.2 Fermentation\n				24.4.2.1 Mode of Fermentation\n			24.4.3 Heat Exchangers\n				24.4.3.1 Shell and Tube Heat Exchangers\n				24.4.3.2 Plate Heat Exchangers\n				24.4.3.3 Spiral Heat Exchangers\n				24.4.3.4 Scraped-Surface Heat Exchangers\n				24.4.3.5 Jacketed Heat Exchangers\n		24.5 Post-Fermentation Operations and Their Equipment\n			24.5.1 Refrigeration\n			24.5.2 Ion Exchange\n			24.5.3 Clarification of Wine\n				24.5.3.1 Natural Clarification of Wine\n				24.5.3.2 Centrifugation of Wine\n			24.5.4 Filtration of Wine\n				24.5.4.1 Filtration Aids\n				24.5.4.2 Pressure Leaf Filters\n				24.5.4.3 Pad Filters\n				24.5.4.4 Plate and Frame Filters\n				24.5.4.5 Cartridge and Membrane Filters\n				24.5.4.6 Cross-Flow Filters\n			24.5.5 Distillation of Wine\n			24.5.6 Storage of Wines\n				24.5.6.1 Filling and Racking of the Wine\n			24.5.7 Ageing of the Wines\n			24.5.8 Bottling and Corking\n			24.5.9 Labeling Machines\n			24.5.10 Capsulators and Foiling Machines\n		24.6 Cleaning of the Wineries\n		24.7 Problems Associated with Wineries\n		Bibliography\n	Chapter 25 Preparation of Grape Must for Wine Production\n		25.1 Introduction\n		25.2 Fruit Composition, Maturity and Harvesting\n		25.3 Crushing and De-Stemming\n		25.4 Must Preparation and Handling\n		25.5 Pressing\n		25.6 Carbonic Maceration\n		25.7 Gas Blanketing\n		25.8 Juice and Skin Separation for White Wines\n		25.9 Clarification of Must for White Wines\n		25.10 Juice and Must Treatments\n		Bibliography\n	Chapter 26 Culture of Wine Yeast and Bacteria\n		26.1 Introduction\n		26.2 Wine Yeast: Characteristics and Estimated Demand\n		26.3 Starter Cultures of Yeast\n			26.3.1 Natural Microflora\n			26.3.2 Pure Culture of Yeast\n				26.3.2.1 Wet Yeast\n				26.3.2.2 Sparkling Wine Starter\n				26.3.2.3 Lyophilized Yeast\n				26.3.2.4 Immobilized Yeast\n				26.3.2.5 Dry Wine Yeast\n		26.4 Yeast Physiology\n		26.5 Industrial Cultivation\n			26.5.1 Culture Maintenance\n			26.5.2 Fermentation\n		26.6 Effects of Industrial Cultivation on Properties of Wine Yeast\n			26.6.1 Microbiological Quality\n			26.6.2 Fermentation Rate\n			26.6.3 Production of Hydrogen Sulphide (H2S)\n			26.6.4 Ethanol Yield and Tolerance\n			26.6.5 Resistance to Sulfur Dioxide\n			26.6.6 Resistance to Drying and Rehydration\n		26.7 Drying of Wine Yeast\n		26.8 Yeast Rehydration\n		26.9 Quality control of Wine Yeast Culture\n		26.10 Malolactic Bacteria\n			26.10.1 Physiology\n			26.10.2 Selection and Identification\n			26.10.3 Industrial Production\n			26.10.4 Rehydration\n		Bibliography\n	Chapter 27 Bioreactors in Wine Fermentation\n		27.1 Introduction\n		27.2 Wine Production: Conventional Bioreactor Systems\n			27.2.1 White and Red Wine Production\n			27.2.2 Fermentation Vessels or Bioreactors\n				27.2.2.1 Shape and Size\n				27.2.2.2 Construction Material\n			27.2.3 Continuous Wine Making\n			27.2.4 Microbial Technology\n		27.3 High Cell Density Reactors\n			27.3.1 Homogeneous Reactors\n			27.3.2 Heterogeneous Reactors\n				27.3.2.1 Immobilization Techniques\n				27.3.2.2 Immobilized Bioreactor Design\n		27.4 Kinetic Constraints and Behaviour of Immobilized Microorganisms\n		27.5 Applications of Immobilized Bioreactors in Enology\n			27.5.1 Wine Deacidification\n				27.5.1.1 Malolactic Fermentation\n				27.5.1.2 Deacidification by Yeast\n			27.5.2 Sparkling Wines\n				27.5.2.1 Prise de Mousse or Champagne Method\n				27.5.2.2 Charmat Process or Bulk Method\n			27.5.3 Cider Production\n		27.6 Economics of Immobilized Bioreactors\n		Bibliography\n	Chapter 28 Wines and Brandies: Maturation Aspects\n		28.1 Introduction\n		28.2 Maturation and Aging of Wine and Brandy\n			28.2.1 Maturation and Aging\n			28.2.2 Objective of Maturation\n		28.3 Containers/Cooperages for Maturation\n		28.4 Theory and Process of Maturation\n			28.4.1 Theory of Maturation\n			28.4.2 Maturation Process\n		28.5 Factors Effecting Maturation of Wine\n			28.5.1 Effect of Time and Temperature\n			28.5.2 Effect of Oxygen\n				28.5.2.1 Oxygen Dissolved in Wine\n				28.5.2.2 Major Substrates in Wine for Oxidation\n				28.5.2.3 Reactions Coupled to The Oxidation of Phenols\n				28.5.2.4 Phenols Other Than Vicinal-diphenol in Wine\n				28.5.2.5 Effect of pH on Wine Oxidation\n				28.5.2.6 Increased O2 Consumption\n				28.5.2.7 Regenerative Polymerization\n				28.5.2.8 Oxygen as the Oxidant in Wine\n				28.5.2.9 Alkaline Oxidation of Gallic Acid\n			28.5.3 Effect of Cooperage\n			28.5.4 Effect of Oak Wood Chips\n			28.5.5 Changes in Tannins and Their Derivatives\n			28.5.6 Changes in Other Extractives from Oak\n			28.5.7 Changes in Polysaccharides\n		28.6 Wood Selection, Toasting, and Changes in Oak Structure\n			28.6.1 Criteria for Wood Selection\n			28.6.2 Method of Wood Toasting and Its Effect\n				28.6.2.1 Method of Toasting\n				28.6.2.2 Effect of Toasting\n				28.6.2.3 Changes in Oak Structure Due to Toasting\n		28.7 Aging Regime Typical for Wines\n			28.7.1 Maturation and Aging of Table Wines\n			28.7.2 Sherries\n				28.7.2.1 Solera System\n			28.7.3 Sparkling Wine/Champagne\n		28.8 Maturation of Brandy\n			28.8.1 Brandy Maturation and Type of Compounds\n			28.8.2 Effect on Flavor\n			28.8.3 Influence of Oxidation Processes on Maturation of Brandy\n		Bibliography\n	Chapter 29 Chemical and Microbiological Stabilization of Wines\n		29.1 Introduction\n		29.2 Testing of Wine for Stability\n		29.3 Instability of Wine – Major Causes\n			29.3.1 Wine Oxidation\n			29.3.2 Protein Precipitation\n				29.3.2.1 Heat Tests\n				29.3.2.2 Cold Stability Test\n				29.3.2.3 Precipitation Test\n				29.3.2.4 Bento Test\n				29.3.2.5 TCA Acid Test\n				29.3.2.6 Flash Pasteurization\n				29.3.2.7 Silicon Dioxide (Kieselsol)\n			29.3.3 Color Stabilization\n			29.3.4 Hydrogen Sulfide\n			29.3.5 Tartrate Stabilization/ Cold Stabilization\n			29.3.6 Stabilization by Ion Exchange\n			29.3.7 Heavy Metal Stabilization\n				29.3.7.1 Aluminum\n				29.3.7.2 Iron\n				29.3.7.3 Copper\n			29.3.8 Polysaccharides and Polyphenols\n				29.3.8.1 Polysaccharides\n				29.3.8.2 Polyphenols\n			29.3.9 Microbiological Stability\n		29.4 Fining Agents\n		29.5 Filtration\n			29.5.1 Depth Filtration\n			29.5.2 Surface Filtration\n			29.5.3 Earth Filtration\n			29.5.4 Pad Filtration\n			29.5.5 Membrane Filtration\n			29.5.6 Cross-Flow Filtration\n			29.5.7 Ultrafiltration\n				29.5.7.1 Removal of Harsh and Astringent Compounds\n				29.5.7.2 Protein Stabilization\n				29.5.7.3 Tannins and Color Removal\n				29.5.7.4 Filtration for Microbiological Stabilization\n		Bibliography\n	Chapter 30 Packaging Technology of Wines\n		30.1 Introduction\n		30.2 Glass Containers for Packaging\n			30.2.1 Bottles\n				30.2.1.1 Wine Bottle Shapes\n				30.2.1.2 Evolution of Wine Bottle Shapes\n				30.2.1.3 Wine Bottle Sizes\n		30.3 Plastics for Wine Packaging\n		30.4 Bag-in-Box System\n		30.5 Wine Bottle Closures\n			30.5.1 Corks\n			30.5.2 Capsules\n		30.6 Wine Labels\n			30.6.1 Vintage Dating\n			30.6.2 Declaration of Sulfites\n			30.6.3 Government Health Warning\n		Bibliography\n	Chapter 31 Technology of Waste Management in Wineries and Distilleries\n		31.1 Introduction\n		31.2 Pollution Load and Type of Waste Generated\n		31.3 Impact of Pollution and the Need for Control\n		31.4 Planning a Wastewater Treatment Plant\n		31.5 Environmental Management of Wine Waste\n			31.5.1 Solid Waste – Process\n			31.5.2 By-Product Recovery From Winery and Distillery Waste\n				31.5.2.1 Recovery of Tartrates\n				31.5.2.2 Recovery of Grapeseed Oil\n				31.5.2.3 Recovery of Tannins\n				31.5.2.4 Bioactive Compounds and Their Applications\n				31.5.2.5 Cosmetology and Health-Related Product Recovery\n				31.5.2.6 Pollulan\n				31.5.2.7 Recovery of Pigments\n				31.5.2.8 Recovery of Other Useful Products\n				31.5.2.9 Use as a Fertilizer – Composting of Wine Pomace\n				31.5.2.10 Biogas/Energy By-Products\n				31.5.2.11 Biorefining Concept of Fruit Winery Waste\n			31.5.3 Winery Solid Waste\n				31.5.3.1 Use as a Fertilizer\n				31.5.3.2 Use as Stock Feed\n		31.6 Process Modification/Clean Technology in Plant-Measures\n			31.6.1 Process Modification\n			31.6.2 In-Plant Measures\n			31.6.3 In-House Keeping and Clean Production Methods\n		31.7 Wastewater Treatment\n			31.7.1 Treatment Process – Wastewater Treatment\n				31.7.1.1 Primary Treatment\n				31.7.1.2 Secondary Treatment\n				31.7.1.3 Anaerobic Biological Treatment\n				31.7.1.4 Immobilized Anaerobic Biological Reactors\n		31.8 Wastewater Treatment Technologies\n			31.8.1 Conventional Wastewater Treatment\n			31.8.2 Wastewater Treatment Process\n		31.9 Treatment of Solid Waste and Effluent Disposal\n		31.10 Advanced Wastewater Treatment\n		31.11 Wastewater Reuse Application\n		Bibliography\nUnit 6 Technology for Production of Wine and Brandy\n	Chapter 32 Production of Table Wines\n		32.1 Introduction\n		32.2 Wine Production Basics\n			32.2.1 Sugar and Potential Alcohol Estimates\n			32.2.2 Additions and Adjustments\n				32.2.2.1 Sulfur Dioxide\n				32.2.2.2 Acidity and pH Adjustment\n				32.2.2.3 Flavor Enhancement\n				32.2.2.4 Volatile Loss\n			32.2.3 Fermentation\n				32.2.3.1 Fermenters\n				32.2.3.2 Yeast Inoculation\n				32.2.3.3 Inoculation with Lactic Acid Bacteria\n			32.2.4 Maturation\n				32.2.4.1 Conditions\n				32.2.4.2 Color Adjustment\n				32.2.4.3 Blending\n		32.3 Table Wine Classification\n		32.4 White Wines\n			32.4.1 Oxygen Exposure\n			32.4.2 Maceration (Skin Contact)\n			32.4.3 Suspended Solids\n			32.4.4 Fermentation Temperature\n			32.4.5 Malolactic Fermentation\n			32.4.6 In-Barrel Fermentation\n			32.4.7 Sur Lies Maturation\n			32.4.8 Sweet Wines\n			32.4.9 Base Wine Production\n		32.5 Red Wines\n			32.5.1 Maceration\n			32.5.2 Fermentation Temperature\n			32.5.3 Malolactic Fermentation\n			32.5.4 Maturation\n			32.5.5 Fining\n			32.5.6 Recioto Process\n			32.5.7 Governo Process\n			32.5.8 Carbonic Maceration\n			32.5.9 Thermovinification\n		Bibliography\n	Chapter 33 Fortified Wines: Production Technology\n		33.1 Introduction\n		33.2 Sherry\n			33.2.1 Definition and Nomenclature\n				33.2.1.1 Types of Sherry\n			33.2.2 Areas of Production, Climate and Soil\n			33.2.3 Grape Varieties\n			33.2.4 Technology of Production\n				33.2.4.1 Crushing and Pressing\n				33.2.4.2 Fermentation\n				33.2.4.3 Settling and Racking\n				33.2.4.4 Fortification\n				33.2.4.5 Aging\n				33.2.4.6 Sweetening and Blending\n				33.2.4.7 Clarification and Stabilization\n				33.2.4.8 Addition of Sulfur Dioxide\n				33.2.4.9 Finishing\n				33.2.4.10 Bottling\n			33.2.5 Quality of Sherries\n		33.3 Port\n			33.3.1 Definition and Characteristics\n			33.3.2 Viticulture\n				33.3.2.1 Soil and Climate\n				33.3.2.2 Vineyards and Grape Varieties\n			33.3.3 Technology of Port Production\n				33.3.3.1 Grape Crushing and Must Preparation\n				33.3.3.2 Fermentation\n				33.3.3.3 Fortification\n				33.3.3.4 Blending\n				33.3.3.5 Clarification\n				33.3.3.6 Stabilization\n				33.3.3.7 Aging and Maturation\n				33.3.3.8 Bottling\n			33.3.4 Types of Port\n				33.3.4.1 Vintage Port\n				33.3.4.2 Late Bottled Vintage (LBV) Port\n				33.3.4.3 Tawny Port\n				33.3.4.4 White Port\n				33.3.4.5 Ruby Port\n		33.4 Vermouth\n			33.4.1 Definition and Origin\n			33.4.2 Herbs and Spices\n			33.4.3 Technology of Preparation\n				33.4.3.1 Preparation of the Base Wine\n				33.4.3.2 Brandy Distillation\n				33.4.3.3 Methods of Flavoring the Base Wine\n				33.4.3.4 Sweet Vermouth\n				33.4.3.5 Dry Vermouth\n				33.4.3.6 Fortification and Blending\n				33.4.3.7 Aging and Finishing\n				33.4.3.8 Bottling\n			33.4.4 Vermouth from Other Fruits\n				33.4.4.1 Mango Vermouth\n				33.4.4.2 Apple Vermouth\n				33.4.4.3 Plum Vermouth\n				33.4.4.4 Sand Pear Vermouth\n				33.4.4.5 Tamarind Vermouth\n				33.4.4.6 Pomegranate Vermouth\n				33.4.4.7 Apricot Vermouth\n		Bibliography\n	Chapter 34 Sparkling Wine Production\n		34.1 Introduction\n		34.2 Production Methods of Sparkling Wines\n			34.2.1 Champenoise Method\n			34.2.2 The Transfer Method\n			34.2.3 Méthode Ancestrale\n			34.2.4 Bulk Method\n		34.3 Champagne: Preamble and Production Technology\n			34.3.1 Champagne\n			34.3.2 The Grape Varieties for Champagne\n			34.3.3 Base Wine Preparation\n			34.3.4 Primary Fermentation\n			34.3.5 Malolactic Fermentation\n			34.3.6 Clarification\n			34.3.7 Blending\n			34.3.8 Stabilization\n			34.3.9 Secondary Fermentation and Bottle Aging\n			34.3.10 Remuage\n			34.3.11 Disgorging\n		34.4 Malolactic Fermentation in Sparkling Wine Production\n			34.4.1 Effects of Amino Acids\n				34.4.1.1 Effect on Bacterial Growth\n				34.4.1.2 Effect on d-Glucose Fermentation\n				34.4.1.3 Effect on l-Malic Acid Consumption\n			34.4.2 Effect of an Excessive Concentration of One Amino Acid\n				34.4.2.1 Effect on Bacterial Growth\n				34.4.2.2 Bacterial Growth Stimulation by Amino Acids\n				34.4.2.3 Bacterial Growth Inhibition by Amino Acids\n			34.4.3 Effect on l-Malic Acid and d-Glucose Consumption\n		34.5 Bubble Dynamics in Champagne Wines\n			34.5.1 The Bubble Genesis\n			34.5.2 The Bubble Rise\n			34.5.3 The Bubble Collapse At the Free Surface\n		34.6 Trends in Champagne Research\n			34.6.1 Application of Metabolomics to the Characterization of the Chemical Fingerprint of Champagne Bubbles\n			34.6.2 Application of Metabolomics To the Chemical Composition And the Age of Champagne Bottles\n		Bibliography\n	Chapter 35 Production of Cider and Perry\n		35.1 Introduction\n		35.2 Cider Production Technology\n			35.2.1 Methods of Making Cider\n			35.2.2 Raw Materials\n			35.2.3 Milling and Pressing\n			35.2.4 Controlling Microorganisms before Fermentation\n			35.2.5 Amelioration\n			35.2.6 Inoculation\n			35.2.7 Fermentation\n			35.2.8 Clarification\n			35.2.9 Ageing/Maturation and Secondary Fermentation\n			35.2.10 Final Treatment and Packaging\n		35.3 Quality of Cider\n			35.3.1 Chemical Composition of Cider\n			35.3.2 Sensory Qualities\n			35.3.3 Spoilage of Cider\n		35.4 Perry\n			35.4.1 Composition of Pears\n			35.4.2 Process of Making Perry\n		Bibliography\n	Chapter 36 Technology of Reduced-Alcohol Wine Production\n		36.1 Introduction\n		36.2 Production Techniques: Low- or Reduced-Alcohol Wine\n		36.3 Pre-Fermentation Technologies for Limiting Alcohol Production\n			36.3.1 Glucose Oxidase: Biochemical Principle\n				36.3.1.1 Treatment of Grape Juice with GOX\n				36.3.1.2 GOX-Produced Wines and Their Composition\n			36.3.2 Fermentation Technologies For Limiting Alcohol Production: Use of Novel Yeast Strains\n			36.3.3 Genetically Manipulated Saccharomyces cerevisiae\n		36.4 Post-Fermentation Technologies for Removing Alcohol\n			36.4.1 Application of Reverse Osmosis in Low-Alcohol or De-Alcoholised Wines\n				36.4.1.1 Theoretical and Historical Background\n				36.4.1.2 Membrane Types and Configurations\n				36.4.1.3 Applications and Limitations\n			36.4.2 Evaporative Perstraction\n			36.4.3 Application of the Spinning Cone Column for Alcohol Removal\n				36.4.3.1 Spinning Cone Column\n			36.4.4 Supercritical Solvent Extraction\n		36.5 Sensory Quality Of Low-Alcohol Wines\n		Bibliograhy\n	Chapter 37 Production Technology of Fruit Wines\n		37.1 Introduction\n		37.2 Fruit Wine Production: Basics and Pre-Requisites\n		37.3 General Method of Preparation of Fruit Wine\n			37.3.1 Preparation of Yeast Culture\n			37.3.2 Preparation of Must\n			37.3.3 Fermentation\n			37.3.4 Finishing of Fermentation\n			37.3.5 Siphoning and Racking\n			37.3.6 Maturation\n			37.3.7 Clarification\n			37.3.8 Blending\n			37.3.9 Pasteurization\n			37.3.10 Storage and Labeling\n		37.4 Technology for Production of Various Fruit Wines\n			37.4.1 Apple Wine\n			37.4.2 Pear Wine\n			37.4.3 Custard Apple Wine\n			37.4.4 Mango Wine\n			37.4.5 Jambal Wine\n			37.4.6 Muskmelon Wine\n			37.4.7 Coconut Toddy\n			37.4.8 Palm Sap Wine\n			37.4.9 Pomegranate Wine\n			37.4.10 Banana Wine\n			37.4.11 Plantain Wine\n			37.4.12 Guava Wine\n			37.4.13 Ber Wine\n			37.4.14 Plum Wine\n			37.4.15 Citrus Wines\n			37.4.16 Peach Wine\n			37.4.17 Sea Buckthorn Wine\n			37.4.18 Kiwifruit Wine\n			37.4.19 Strawberry Wine\n			37.4.20 Red Raspberry Wine\n			37.4.21 Cherry Wines\n			37.4.22 Pineapple Wine\n			37.4.23 Date Wine\n			37.4.24 Apricot Wine\n			37.4.25 Aloe Wine\n			37.4.26 Low-Alcohol Bitter Gourd drink\n			37.4.27 Mixed-Fruit Wines\n			37.4.28 Litchi\n			37.4.29 Mulberry Wine\n			37.4.30 Mead\n		37.5 Sparkling Wine\n			37.5.1 Sparkling Plum Wine\n		Bibliography\n	Chapter 38 Technology of Brandy Production\n		38.1 Introduction\n		38.2 Definition and Characteristics of Brandy\n		38.3 Historical Background\n		38.4 Technology for Production of Brandy\n			38.4.1 Raw Materials for Brandy Production\n			38.4.2 Production of Wine\n			38.4.3 Distillation\n				38.4.3.1 Distillation Theory\n				38.4.3.2 Distillation Apparatus\n				38.4.3.3 Double Distillation Technique\n				38.4.3.4 Distillation of Volatile Compounds of Wines\n				38.4.3.5 Fractional Distillation\n				38.4.3.6 Vacuum Distillation\n				38.4.3.7 Units of Measurements\n				38.4.3.8 Fusel Oil Removal\n				38.4.3.9 Aldehyde Removal\n				38.4.3.10 Wine Spirits and Neutral Spirits\n				38.4.3.11 Rectification and Purification\n			38.4.4 Ageing\n				38.4.4.1 Ageing Preparation\n				38.4.4.2 Oak Wood Chips Barrels\n				38.4.4.3 Effect of Toasting Intensity\n				38.4.4.4 Solera System of Ageing Brandy\n				38.4.4.5 Rapid Ageing\n				38.4.4.6 Changes During Ageing\n				38.4.4.7 Removal from Storage\n			38.4.5 Blending, Bottling and Labelling\n		38.5 Production of Typical Brandies\n			38.5.1 Cognac\n			38.5.2 Armagnac\n			38.5.3 Pisco\n			38.5.4 Fruit Brandies\n		38.6 Components of Brandy\n			38.6.1 Ethanol\n			38.6.2 Other Alcohols\n			38.6.3 Aldehydes\n			38.6.4 Esters\n			38.6.5 Other Constituents\n		38.7 Labelling of Brandy\n		38.8 Fire and Explosive Hazards\n		Bibliography\nUnit 7 Methods of Quality Evaluation\n	Chapter 39 Techniques of Quality Analysis in Wine and Brandy\n		39.1 Introduction\n		39.2 Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Points (HACCP)\n		39.3 Juice and Wine Analytes\n		39.4 The Characterisation of Juice, Wines and Distillates\n		39.5 Sensory Evaluation\n		39.6 Maturity Evaluation and Grape Sampling\n			39.6.1 Maturity Evaluation\n			39.6.2 Grape Sampling and Processing\n				39.6.2.1 Grape Sampling\n				39.6.2.2 Grape Sample Processing\n				39.6.2.3 Sensory Evaluation of Aroma/Flavour and Phenol Maturity\n		39.7 Analytical Techniques\n			39.7.1 Atomic Absorption and Inductively Coupled Plasma Emission (AA/ICP)\n			39.7.2 Gas Chromatography (GC)\n			39.7.3 Gas Chromatography–Mass Spectrometry (GC/MS)\n			39.7.4 Near Infrared (NIR) Methods\n			39.7.5 Solid-Phase Microextraction (SPME)\n			39.7.6 High Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC)\n			39.7.7 Ion Chromatography\n			39.7.8 Matrix-Assisted Laser Desorption Ionisation Mass Spectrometry (MALDI)\n			39.7.9 Flow Injection Analysis (FIA)\n			39.7.10 Capillary Electrophoresis (CE)\n			39.7.11 Spectrophotometry\n		39.8 Grape/Wine Aroma and Flavour Components\n		39.9 Grape and Wine Phenolics\n		39.10 Microbiological Identification and Characterisation in Wine and Juice\n			39.10.1 Direct Estimations of Population Density and Diversity\n				39.10.1.1 Microscopy\n				39.10.1.2 Potentiometric Applications\n				39.10.1.3 Flow Cytometry\n				39.10.1.4 Microbial Identification\n				39.10.1.5 Other Enzymatic Methods\n				39.10.1.6 Bioluminescent Techniques\n				39.10.1.7 Molecular Methods\n				39.10.1.8 Random Amplified Polymorphic DNA-Polymeric Chain Reaction(RAPD-PCR)\n				39.10.1.9 Repetitive Sequence-Based PCR (REP-PCR)\n				39.10.1.10 Multi-Locus Sequencing Typing (MLST)\n				39.10.1.11 Extrachromosomal Elements (Satellites)\n		39.11 Three Microbiological Issues of Importance to the Winemaker\n			39.11.1 Brettanomyces\n			39.11.2 Fermentable Nitrogen\n			39.11.3 Ethyl Carbamate\n		Dedication\n		Bibliography\n	Chapter 40 Sensory Evaluation of Wines and Brandies: General Concepts and Practices\n		40.1 Introduction and Importance\n		40.2 Senses and Sense Organs\n			40.2.1 Eyesight\n			40.2.2 Hearing\n			40.2.3 Touch\n			40.2.4 Taste\n			40.2.5 Smell\n		40.3 Wine Sensory Evaluation: Panel Screening, Selection and Training\n			40.3.1 Sensory Evaluation Laboratory\n			40.3.2 Sensory Testing Programme\n			40.3.3 Types of Sensory Panellists\n			40.3.4 Sensory Evaluation Panel\n				40.3.4.1 Panel Screening and Selection\n				40.3.4.2 Panel Training\n			40.3.5 Wine Tasting Temperature\n			40.3.6 Wine Glass\n			40.3.7 Wine Serving\n		40.4 Sensory Evaluation Methods\n			40.4.1 Sensitivity Tests\n				40.4.1.1 Threshold Tests\n				40.4.1.2 Discrimination Tests\n			40.4.2 Qualitative Tests\n				40.4.2.1 Ranking Method\n			40.4.3 Quantitative Tests\n				40.4.3.1 Magnitude Estimation Method\n				40.4.3.2 Descriptive Profiling\n			40.4.4 Time-Intensity Measurement\n			40.4.5 Affective or Consumer Tests\n		40.5 Statistical Analysis Used in Sensory Data Analysis\n			40.5.1 Numerical data\n			40.5.2 Measurement Scales\n			40.5.3 Ranking Data\n			40.5.4 Multiple comparisons\n			40.5.5 Use of Multivariate Data Analysis Techniques\n		40.6 Wine Sensory Evaluation\n			40.6.1 Appearance/Visual\n			40.6.2 Aroma/Smell\n			40.6.3 Taste/Flavour\n			40.6.4 Texture\n			40.6.5 Mouthfeel Sensations\n		40.7 Factors With Impact on Wines Sensory Profile\n			40.7.1 Effect of Yeast Strains/Varieties\n			40.7.2 Effect of Malolactic Fermentation\n		40.8 Descriptive Sensory Evaluation of Brandy\n		40.9 Wine Evaluation in a Winery\n		40.10 Sensory Analysis and Consumer Reaction\n		Bibliography\n	Chapter 41 Microbial Spoilage of Wine\n		41.1 Introduction\n		41.2 Yeasts as Spoilage Micro-Organisms after Alcoholic Fermentation\n			41.2.1 Refermentation of Sweet Wines\n			41.2.2 The ‘Flower Disease’\n			41.2.3 Brettanomyces bruxellensis and the Volatile Phenols\n		41.3 LACTIC ACID BACTERIA AS POSSIBLE SPOILAGE MICRO-ORGANISMS\n			41.3.1 Excessive Volatile Acidity by Oenococcus oeni\n			41.3.2 Mousiness\n			41.3.3 Ropiness\n			41.3.4 Bitterness: Production of Acrolein\n		41.4 Acetic Acid Bacteria: A Continuous Risk from Tank Filling until Bottling\n			41.4.1 Presence of Acetic Acid Bacteria on Grapes and Its Consequences\n			41.4.2 Presence of Acetic Acid Bacteria in Wine\n		41.5 Specific Metabolisms Alter the Hygienic Quality of Wine\n			41.5.1 Ethyl Carbamate (Urethane)\n			41.5.2 The Biogenic Amines\n		41.6 Basic Evidence to Avoid Most Frequent Microbial Spoilage\n		Bibliography\nUnit 8 Wine Industry\n	Chapter 42 International Market of Organic Wine\n		42.1 Introduction\n		42.2 Culture as an Influential Element of Human Behaviour\n		42.3 The Motivational Process\n		42.4 Personal Values\n		42.5 International Market for Organic Wine: A Survey\n			42.5.1 Habits and Motivations for the Consumption of Organic Wine\n			42.5.2 The Consumer of Organic Wine\n				42.5.2.1 Cluster 1\n				42.5.2.2 Cluster 2\n				42.5.2.3 Cluster 3\n				42.5.2.4 Highlight of the Consumer Survey Results\n		42.6 Summary of International Market of Organic Wines\n		Bibliography\n	Chapter 43 Global Wine Tourism: Current Trends and Future Strategies\n		43.1 Introduction\n		43.2 The Place and Role of Wine Tourism\n		43.3 Trend of Wine Tourism in the World\n			43.3.1 Wine Tourism’s Development in Italy\n			43.3.2 Concept of Wine Tourism in France\n			43.3.3 Wine Tourism in Spain\n			43.3.4 Wine Tourism Strategy of Australia\n			43.3.5 Argentina Mendoza as Wine Tourism Good Practice\n			43.3.6 Wine Tourism in India\n			43.3.7 China’s Wine Tourism\n			43.3.8 Wine Tourism in Hungary\n		43.4 The Importance of Wine Consumer Behaviour and Marketing Mix\n			43.4.1 Market Segmentation, Types of Wine Tourists and Their Consumer Behaviour\n			43.4.2 Marketing Mix in the Wine Tourism Market\n		43.5 Good Practice of Wine Tourism in Hungary\n			43.5.1 The 12 Best Practices of Global Wine Tourism\n		43.6 The Wine Tourism of the Hungarian Tokaj Wine Region, as a World Heritage Site\n		43.7 New Trends in the Global Wine Tourism\n		43.8 Developments of Expected Global Wine Tourism\n		43.9 Strategies for the Global Wine Tourism\n		Bibliography\n	Chapter 44 Innovations in Wine Production\n		44.1 Introduction\n		44.2 Vineyard Innovations\n		44.3 Winery Innovations\n		44.4 Sparkling Wines\n		44.5 Fortified Wines\n		44.6 Sensory Evaluation\n		Bibliography\n	Chapter 45 The Wine Industry: An Overview of Threats, Opportunities, Innovations and Trends\n		45.1 Introduction\n		45.2 The Global Wine Industry: A Statistical Overview\n			45.2.1 Area Under Grape Cultivation and Wine Production\n			45.2.2 Wine Consumption, Export and Import\n			45.2.3 Sale and Total Revenue\n		45.3 A Changing Environment\n			45.3.1 Climate Change and Wildfires\n			45.3.2 Market Segmentation\n				45.3.2.1 Non-Grape-Based Wines\n			45.3.3 Changing Venues\n			45.3.4 Transparency\n		45.4 Sustainability in the Wine Industry\n			45.4.1 By-Products and Waste\n			45.4.2 Wine Pricing, Branding and the Consumer\n			45.4.3 Social Media\n			45.4.4 Next Generation Marketing\n			45.4.5 Stunt Marketing\n		45.5 Packaging the Wine: Trends and Innovation\n			45.5.1 Wine-on-Tap (Kegged Wine)\n			45.5.2 Self-Serve Wine Bars\n			45.5.3 Innovations in Bottle Types\n			45.5.4 Fractional Bottles, Pouches and Cans\n		45.6 Digital Marketing Tools\n		45.7 Health Focus, Lower-Alcohol Products and Cannabis\n		45.8 Social Marketing and Chatbots\n		45.9 The Winery of the Future Is Already Here\n		45.10 Future Outlook\n		Bibliography\nIndex