Computer Forensics and Cyber Crime: An Introduction

Cover......Page 1
Title Page......Page 4
Copyright Page......Page 5
Contents......Page 7
Foreword......Page 16
Acknowledgments......Page 18
About the Author......Page 19
Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION AND OVERVIEW OF COMPUTER FORENSICS AND CYBERCRIME......Page 20
 I. Introduction......Page 21
 II. Cyberspace and Criminal Behavior......Page 22
 III. Clarification of Terms......Page 24
 IV. Traditional Problems Associated with Computer Crime......Page 25
  a. Physicality and Jurisdictional Concerns......Page 26
  b. Perceived Insignificance, Stereotypes, and Incompetence......Page 27
  c. Prosecutorial Reluctance......Page 28
  d. Lack of Reporting......Page 29
  e. Lack of Resources......Page 30
  f. Jurisprudential Inconsistency......Page 33
 V. Extent of the Problem......Page 35
  c. Mobile Payments......Page 39
 VII. Conclusions......Page 40
  Web Resources......Page 41
  Endnotes......Page 42
Chapter 2 COMPUTER TERMINOLOGY AND HISTORY......Page 44
 I. A Brief History of Computers......Page 45
  a. Understanding Data......Page 47
  b. Output Devices......Page 48
  a. Boot Sequence......Page 50
  a. Microsoft Windows......Page 51
  b. Macintosh......Page 53
  d. LINUX......Page 55
  e. Smart Phones......Page 56
 VI. Application Software......Page 57
 VII. A Brief History of the Internet......Page 58
  a. Commonly Used Terms......Page 60
 IX. Realms of the Cyberworld......Page 63
  a. World Wide Web......Page 64
  b. Newsgroups/Bulletin Boards (Usenet Groups)......Page 65
  c. Internet Relay Chat......Page 66
 XII. Future Issues and Conclusions......Page 67
  Endnotes......Page 68
Chapter 3 TRADITIONAL COMPUTER CRIME: EARLY HACKERS AND THEFT OF COMPONENTS......Page 70
 II. Traditional Problems......Page 71
 III. Recognizing and Defining Computer Crime......Page 73
 IV. Three Incidents......Page 74
  a. What Is Phreaking?......Page 78
  b. The War on Phreaking......Page 79
 VI. Hacking......Page 80
  b. Evolution in the Hacking Community......Page 81
  c. Contemporary Motivation......Page 82
  d. Hierarchy of Contemporary Cybercriminals......Page 84
  a. Hardware......Page 86
  a. Software......Page 88
 XI. Conclusions......Page 90
  Web Resources......Page 91
  Endnotes......Page 92
Chapter 4 CONTEMPORARY COMPUTER CRIME......Page 93
 I. Web-Based Criminal Activity......Page 94
  a. Interference with Lawful Use of Computers......Page 95
 II. Malware......Page 96
  a. Viruses and Worms......Page 97
  c. Botnets and Zombie Armies......Page 99
  d. Spam......Page 101
  e. Ransomware and the Kidnapping of Information......Page 103
  a. Traditional Methods of Proprietary Information Theft......Page 105
  c. Political Espionage......Page 106
 IV. Terrorism......Page 108
  a. Cyberterrorism......Page 109
  a. Dissemination of Contraband or Offensive Materials......Page 110
  b. Threatening and Harassing Communications......Page 116
  c. Online Fraud......Page 119
  d. e-Fencing......Page 124
  a. Money Laundering......Page 125
 VII. Conclusions......Page 129
  Web Resources......Page 130
  Endnotes......Page 131
Chapter 5 IDENTITY THEFT AND IDENTITY FRAUD......Page 133
 I. Introduction......Page 134
 II. Typologies of Identity Theft/Fraud......Page 135
  a. Assumption of Identity......Page 136
  b. Theft for Employment and/or Border Entry......Page 137
  c. Criminal Record Identity Theft/Fraud......Page 138
  d. Virtual Identity Theft/Fraud......Page 139
  e. Credit Identity Theft/Fraud......Page 140
 III. Prevalence and Victimology......Page 141
  a. Victims and the Costs Associated with Victimization......Page 142
  b. Future Increases......Page 144
  a. Mail Theft......Page 145
  b. Dumpster Diving......Page 146
  c. Theft of Computers......Page 147
  d. Bag Operations......Page 148
  e. Child Identity Theft......Page 149
  g. Fraudulent or Fictitious Companies......Page 150
 V. Virtual or Internet-Facilitated Methods......Page 151
  a. Phishing......Page 152
  b. Spyware and Crimeware......Page 154
  c. Keyloggers and Password Stealers......Page 155
  d. Trojans......Page 156
 VI. Crimes Facilitated by Identity Theft/Fraud......Page 157
  b. Immigration Fraud and Border Crossings......Page 158
 VII. Conclusions and Recommendations......Page 160
  Recommended Reading......Page 162
  Endnotes......Page 163
Chapter 6 TERRORISM AND ORGANIZED CRIME......Page 165
 I. Terrorism......Page 166
  a. Defining Terrorism......Page 167
  b. Classification Through Motivation......Page 168
  c. Roots of Contemporary Terrorism......Page 169
  d. Terrorism as a Stage......Page 170
  e. Cyberterrorism as a Concept......Page 171
 II. Terror Online......Page 172
  a. Propaganda, Information Dissemination, Recruiting, and Fundraising......Page 173
  b. Training......Page 175
  c. Research and Planning......Page 176
  d. Communication......Page 177
  e. Attack Mechanism......Page 178
  b. Criminalizing Terrorist Acts......Page 183
  d. Conclusions......Page 184
  a. Defining Organized Crime......Page 186
  b. Distinguishing Organized Crime from Cybergangs......Page 191
 V. Organized Crime and Technology......Page 193
  b. Cargo Heists and Armed Robbery......Page 194
  c. Fraud......Page 195
  e. The Sex Trade......Page 196
  f. Confidence Scams......Page 197
  h. Data Piracy and Counterfeit Goods......Page 198
  i. Human Smuggling......Page 200
 VII. The Intersection of Organized Crime and Terrorism......Page 201
  Recommended Reading......Page 203
  Endnotes......Page 204
Chapter 7 AVENUES FOR PROSECUTION AND GOVERNMENT EFFORTS......Page 206
 I. Introduction......Page 207
 III. The Evolution of Computer-Specific Statutes......Page 208
  a. Computer Fraud and Abuse Act of 1986......Page 210
 IV. Evolving Child Pornography Statutes......Page 212
  b. The Financial Modernization Act of 1999......Page 214
  c. Fair and Accurate Credit Transactions Act (FACTA) 2003......Page 215
  d. Identity Theft Penalty Enhancement Act of 2004......Page 216
  f. Additional Efforts to Protect Personal Information......Page 217
 VI. Federally Funded Initiatives and Collaborations......Page 218
 VII. Law Enforcement Operations and Tools in the United States......Page 220
  b. Data Mining......Page 221
  c. Collaborations and Professional Associations......Page 225
 VIII. International Efforts......Page 226
  a. OECD and the Select Committee of Experts on Computer-Related Crime of the Council of Europe......Page 227
  b. Council of Europe’s (CoE) Cybercrime Conventions......Page 228
 IX. Conclusions......Page 231
  Web Resources......Page 232
  Endnotes......Page 233
Chapter 8 APPLYING THE FIRST AMENDMENT TO COMPUTER-RELATED CRIME......Page 234
 II. Obscenity in General......Page 235
 III. Traditional Notions of Decency......Page 236
 IV. Emerging Statutes and the Availability of Obscene Material to Children......Page 237
 VI. Applying Case Law to Traditional Child Pornography Statutes......Page 239
  a. New York v. Ferber......Page 240
  b. Osborne v. Ohio......Page 241
  a. Child Pornography Prevention Act......Page 243
  b. Ashcroft v. Free Speech Coalition......Page 244
  c. Prosecutorial Remedies and Other Tools to End the Exploitation of Children Today Act (PROTECT)......Page 246
 VIII. Internet Gambling......Page 247
  b. Case law on Internet Gaming Statutes......Page 248
  c. Lack of International Cooperation and the WTO......Page 249
 IX. Future Issues and Conclusions......Page 250
  Endnotes......Page 251
Chapter 9 THE FOURTH AMENDMENT AND OTHER LEGAL ISSUES......Page 253
 I. The Fourth Amendment......Page 254
  b. Reasonable Suspicion......Page 255
  a. Particularity......Page 256
  b. Seizure of Evidence......Page 258
  c. Third-Party Origination......Page 259
  d. Other Arguments Used in Warranted Searches......Page 260
  b. Exigent Circumstances and Emergency Situations......Page 261
  d. Plain View......Page 263
  e. Border Searches......Page 264
 IV. Exclusionary Rule......Page 265
  a. Types of Recognized Privacy......Page 266
 VI. Private versus Public Sector Searches......Page 267
 VII. Application of Ortega to E-mail: The Cases of Simons and Monroe......Page 268
  a. Electronic Communications Privacy Act of 1986......Page 269
  b. Three Titles under ECPA......Page 270
  c. Privacy Protection Act......Page 272
  e. Communications Assistance for Law Enforcement Act......Page 273
  f. Challenges to the CALEA......Page 274
 VIII. The Patriot Act......Page 275
  a. Enhanced Presidential Authority......Page 276
  b. Electronic Surveillance and Criminal Investigations......Page 277
  c. National Security Letters and Other Fourth Amendment Issues......Page 279
  b. Internet Service Provider Subscriber Records......Page 280
  d. Cell phones......Page 281
  b. Undercover Techniques......Page 282
 Discussion Questions......Page 283
 Endnotes......Page 284
Chapter 10 COMPUTER FORENSICS: TERMINOLOGY AND REQUIREMENTS......Page 286
 I. Computer Forensics—An Emerging Discipline......Page 287
 II. Traditional Problems in Computer Investigations......Page 288
  b. Lack of Communication and Cooperation among Agencies......Page 289
  e. Evidence Corruption......Page 290
 IV. Disk Structure and Digital Evidence......Page 291
  a. Disk Structure and Data Storage......Page 292
  b. Partition Table......Page 294
  c. File Systems......Page 295
  c. Firmware—Operating Instructions......Page 296
 V. Developing Computer Forensic Science Capabilities......Page 298
 VI. Minimum Housing Requirements......Page 300
 VII. Minimum Hardware Requirements......Page 301
  a. Data Preservation, Duplication, and Verification Tools......Page 304
  b. Data Recovery/Extraction Utilities......Page 306
  c. Data Analysis Software......Page 309
  e. Miscellaneous Software......Page 311
  b. Access Data......Page 315
  c. Other Forensic Utilities......Page 316
  Web Resources......Page 318
  Endnotes......Page 319
Chapter 11 SEARCHING AND SEIZING COMPUTER-RELATED EVIDENCE......Page 321
 I. Traditional Problems Associated with Finding Digital Evidence......Page 322
 II. Pre-search Activities......Page 323
  a. Warrant Preparation and Application......Page 325
  b. Plan Preparation and Personnel Gathering......Page 327
  d. Traditional Equipment......Page 330
  e. Computer-Specific Equipment and Materials......Page 331
 III. On-scene Activities......Page 333
  b. Securing the Crime Scene......Page 334
  d. Scene Processing......Page 335
  e. Locating Evidence......Page 339
  f. Seizure and Documentation of Evidence......Page 341
  g. Bagging and Tagging......Page 343
  h. Interviewing Witnesses......Page 345
 IV. Conclusions......Page 346
  Web Resources......Page 347
  Endnotes......Page 348
Chapter 12 PROCESSING OF EVIDENCE AND REPORT PREPARATION......Page 349
  a. Establish Forensically Sterile Conditions......Page 355
  c. Physical Examination......Page 357
  d. Creation and Verification of Image......Page 358
  f. Short-Circuiting the Chip......Page 359
  g. Pulling the Battery......Page 360
  i. Image Verification......Page 361
  k. Restoration of Files......Page 362
  l. Listing of Files......Page 363
  n. Unlocking Files......Page 364
  s. Examination of Executable Programs......Page 366
  t. Evidence from Internet Activity......Page 367
  a. Macintosh Operating System......Page 370
  b. Linux/Unix Operating Systems......Page 371
  a. Smartphones......Page 372
 IV. A Sample of Popular Products......Page 373
 V. Naviation Sysstems......Page 374
 VI. Report Preparation and Final Documentation......Page 375
  Recommended Reading......Page 376
  Endnotes......Page 377
Chapter 13 CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE ISSUES......Page 378
  b. Establishing Accountability for Internet Users......Page 379
  d. Increasing Interagency and Intradepartmental Cooperation......Page 380
  f. Developing International Cooperation......Page 381
  g. Standardization of Accreditation or Expertise......Page 382
 II. Additional Approaches to Internet Crime......Page 383
 III. Future Trends and Emerging Concerns......Page 385
  b. Data Hiding: Remote Storage, Encryption, and the Like......Page 386
  c. Governing Decency and Virtual Pornography......Page 387
  d. Data Mining and Increased Interoperability......Page 388
 IV. Conclusions......Page 390
  Endnotes......Page 391
Bibliography......Page 392
 D......Page 402
 I......Page 403
 P......Page 404
 Z......Page 405