Computer Encyclopedia of Physical Science and Technology, Computer Software

Glossary......Page 1
Brief Description......Page 2
The First Dartmouth Basic......Page 3
A Number is a Number is a Number; that is, there is Only One Kind of Number in Basic......Page 4
Basic Should be Blank Insensitive; That is, a User Should be able to Type in a Program without Regard to Blank Spaces......Page 5
Strings are Added......Page 6
Overlays are Added......Page 7
Personal Computers Appear......Page 8
Multiple Statements on a Line......Page 9
Strings Proliferate......Page 10
Structured Programming......Page 11
Subroutines......Page 12
BASIC Loses Favor......Page 13
Standard BASIC......Page 14
Basic as a Major Application Language......Page 16
References......Page 17
Glossary......Page 18
The Evolution of C and C++......Page 19
Data Types......Page 20
Operators......Page 21
Control Structures......Page 24
Procedures......Page 26
The C Preprocessor......Page 27
Operator-Rich Syntax......Page 28
Explicit Pointer Usage......Page 29
Key C++ Features......Page 30
Function Overloading......Page 31
Classes......Page 32
Inheritance......Page 33
Exceptions......Page 34
Namespaces......Page 35
Standard Template Library......Page 36
Reference......Page 37
Background and Motivation......Page 38
Viruses, Worms, and so Forth......Page 39
Prevention and Detection......Page 40
Conclusion......Page 41
References......Page 42
Glossary......Page 43
Algorithms and Programs......Page 44
Algorithm Design......Page 46
Performance Analysis and Measurement......Page 48
Analysis......Page 49
Measurement......Page 51
Lower Bounds......Page 52
Np-Hard and Np-Complete Problems......Page 53
Nondeterminism......Page 54
NP-Hard and NP-Complete Problems......Page 55
Approximation Algorithms......Page 56
Other Heuristics......Page 57
See also the Following Articles......Page 58
References......Page 59
Glossary......Page 60
Introduction......Page 61
Cryptosystems: A Mathematical Definition......Page 62
Types of Attacks and Attackers......Page 63
System Attacks......Page 64
Electronic Codebook Mode (ECB)......Page 65
Counter Mode (CTR)......Page 66
Data Encryption Standard (DES)......Page 67
Differential cryptanalysis......Page 68
Advanced Encryption Standard......Page 69
Public Key Cryptography......Page 70
Probabilistic Encryption......Page 71
An RSA Example......Page 72
Re-encryption attacks and safe primes......Page 73
Key Distribution Andmanagement......Page 74
Public Key Infrastructures......Page 75
References......Page 76
Glossary......Page 77
The Data Mining Process......Page 78
Rule Induction......Page 79
Discovery of Interestingness......Page 80
Uncertainty Handling......Page 81
Inferencing Rules......Page 82
Neural Networks......Page 83
Statistical Techniques......Page 84
Fuzzy Logic......Page 85
Data Manipulation Techniques......Page 86
Advanced Database Technology......Page 87
Distributed Processing......Page 88
Distributed Data Mining......Page 89
Security and Privacy Aspects of Data Mining......Page 90
Business......Page 91
Science......Page 92
Future Developments......Page 93
References......Page 94
Glossary......Page 95
Memory Allocation and Algorithms......Page 97
Hierarchical Data Structures......Page 99
Linear and Indexed Structures......Page 100
Searching and Sorting Techniques......Page 102
Searching: Algorithms and Data Structures......Page 103
Example (Pictures)......Page 104
Randomness, Order, and Selectivity......Page 105
References......Page 107
Glossary......Page 108
Data Models......Page 109
The Relational Data Model......Page 110
Object-Oriented Data Models......Page 111
Object-Relational Data Models......Page 114
Relational Database Languages......Page 115
Object-Oriented Database Languages......Page 116
Deductive Databases......Page 117
Active Databases......Page 119
Distributed Databases......Page 120
Data Warehouses......Page 122
References......Page 123
Glossary......Page 124
Solution Landscapes......Page 125
Evolutionary Algorithms......Page 127
Genetic Algorithms......Page 128
Genetic Programming......Page 129
Initial Population......Page 130
Evolutionary Programming......Page 131
Evolutionary Strategies......Page 132
Grammatical Evolution......Page 133
Simulated Annealing......Page 134
Memetic Algorithms......Page 135
References......Page 136
Glossary......Page 137
Introduction......Page 138
Quantization......Page 139
Compression......Page 140
Difference Coding and Transform Coding......Page 141
Recent Trends......Page 142
Grayscale Modification......Page 143
Blur Reduction......Page 145
Noise Cleaning......Page 147
Deconvolution......Page 148
Reconstruction......Page 149
Template Matching......Page 152
Image Registration......Page 153
Stereomapping and Range Sensing......Page 154
Image Sequence Analysis......Page 156
Shape from Shading......Page 158
Shape from Shape......Page 159
Feature Detection......Page 160
Region Extraction......Page 162
Geometry-Based Decomposition......Page 165
Subset Representation......Page 166
Properties and Relations......Page 167
Relational Structures and Recognition......Page 168
Knowledge-Based Recognition Systems......Page 169
Meshes......Page 170
References......Page 171
Glossary......Page 173
Variety of Applications, Ties with the Computer Technology. Vast Bibliography. Packages of Subroutines......Page 174
General and Special Linear Systems. Direct and Iterative Methods. Sensitivity to Errors......Page 175
Solving a Differential Equation......Page 176
Hitchcock Transportation Problem. Linear Programming Problem......Page 177
Approximating Data by Curves. Overdetermined Linear Systems. Normal Equations, Reduction to Linear Programming Problems......Page 178
Solving Triangular Systems by Back Substitution......Page 180
Forward Elimination Stage of Gaussian Elimination......Page 181
Gaussian Elimination Performed with Finite Precision. Pivoting Policies. Complete Pivoting for Singular Systems......Page 183
Block Matrix Algorithms......Page 184
Some Modifications of LU Factorization. Choleski’s Factorization. Block Factorizations of a Matrix......Page 185
Error and Residual Vectors. Vector and Matrix Norms. Condition Number......Page 186
Sensitivity of Algorithms for Linear Systems to Round-Off Errors......Page 187
Application to Overdetermined Systems......Page 188
Computing the Minimum 2-Norm Solution to an Underdetermined System......Page 189
Asymptotic and Practical Accelerations of Solving General Linear Systems......Page 190
Banded, Block-Banded, Banded-Symmetric, and Symmetric Systems......Page 191
Toeplitz, Hankel, and Vandermonde Systems and Their Correlation to Polynomial Operations......Page 192
Some Policies of Pivoting for Sparse Systems......Page 193
Iterative Algorithms for Sparse and Special Dense Linear Systems......Page 194
Influence of the Development of Vector and Parallel Computers on Solving Linear Systems......Page 196
References......Page 197
Glossary......Page 198
Where Operating Systems are Required......Page 199
Functions of an Operating System......Page 200
Starting Up......Page 201
Simple Process Management......Page 202
Managing process execution......Page 203
Scheduling......Page 204
Processor scheduling......Page 205
Real-time considerations.......Page 206
Contention for resources......Page 207
Single application processes......Page 208
Simple paging......Page 209
Combined segmentation and paging......Page 210
General Introduction......Page 211
Contiguous space allocation methods......Page 213
Indexed block chaining......Page 214
Organizing Data for Access......Page 215
Two-level directories......Page 216
Data Protection and Integrity......Page 217
Delay and Failure......Page 218
References......Page 219
See also the Following Articles......Page 220
Glossary......Page 221
Application Areas......Page 222
Closed-World Assumption......Page 223
Conjunctions......Page 224
Unification and Logical Variables......Page 225
Horn Clauses......Page 226
Lists......Page 227
Example: Permutations......Page 228
Position and Associativity......Page 229
True and Fail......Page 230
Repeat......Page 231
Input/Output for Terms......Page 232
Arithmetic......Page 233
Manipulating Structured Terms......Page 234
Term Comparison......Page 235
Arguments of Nonterminals and Mixing Grammar Rules and Prolog Code......Page 236
A Grammar Example......Page 237
Meta-level Programming......Page 238
Introduction......Page 239
Imposing Constraints on Variables......Page 240
Labeling Domain Variables......Page 241
Rectangle with Maximum Area......Page 242
References......Page 243
Glossary......Page 245
Activity Networks......Page 247
The Need for Defined Development Life Cycles......Page 248
The Incremental Model......Page 249
Rapid Application Development......Page 250
Creating the Project Team......Page 251
Configuration Management......Page 252
Prioritizing Risk......Page 253
A Taxonomy of Software Effort Estimation Methods......Page 254
COCOMO: An Example of an Algorithmic Model......Page 255
Function Points......Page 256
Reviews, Inspections, and Walkthroughs......Page 257
Quality Plans......Page 258
References......Page 259
Glossary......Page 260
System Model......Page 261
Interface Definition......Page 262
Computational Model......Page 263
Formal Modeling and Verification......Page 264
Introduction......Page 265
Fault Tolerance with Global Time......Page 266
Fault Tolerance without Global Time......Page 267
Conclusion......Page 268
References......Page 269
Introduction......Page 270
Agreeing Requirements......Page 271
Requirements to Elicit......Page 272
Enterprise Modeling......Page 273
Context and Groundwork......Page 274
Summary and Conclusions......Page 275
References......Page 276
Glossary......Page 278
Historical Perspective......Page 279
Board-to-Board......Page 280
Smart Imaging and Vision Chips......Page 281
Monolithic vs. Hybrid......Page 282
Optical Output......Page 283
Flip-chip bonding.......Page 284
Wafer fusion.......Page 285
Performance......Page 286
Functionality......Page 287
Fabricated smart pixel arrays......Page 288
Micro-Electro-Mechanical Systems MEMS......Page 290
Redundancy Based on Reconfiguration......Page 291
References......Page 292
Glossary......Page 293
A Brief History of Software Engineering......Page 294
Application Software......Page 295
The Software Life Cycle......Page 296
The Waterfall Model......Page 297
Spiral Model......Page 298
Process Quality......Page 299
Requirements Engineering......Page 300
Software Architecture......Page 301
Software Design and Specification......Page 302
Testing......Page 303
Reviews and Inspections......Page 304
Management of Software Engineering......Page 305
References......Page 306
Glossary......Page 307
Software Maintenance......Page 308
Models and Process in Software Maintenance......Page 309
Level 1, The System Level......Page 310
Level 2, The Function Level......Page 312
Level 3, The Data Level......Page 313
General Recommendations......Page 315
References......Page 316
Glossary......Page 317
Usage and Reliability Modeling......Page 318
Purpose......Page 319
Algorithmic Model......Page 320
Grammar Model......Page 321
State Hierarchy Model......Page 322
Derivation of Usage Data......Page 323
Failure and Test Data......Page 324
Definitions......Page 325
Time between Failure Models......Page 326
Failure Count Models......Page 327
Reliability Demonstration......Page 328
Purpose......Page 329
Summary......Page 330
References......Page 331
The Input Domain......Page 332
The Internal Structure......Page 333
The Development of Testing Methods......Page 334
A General Strategy for Testing......Page 335
System Testing......Page 336
Functional Testing Techniques......Page 337
References......Page 338
Glossary......Page 339
The Way the Web Works......Page 340
Universal Resource Identifier URL......Page 342
HyperText Transfer Protocol HTTP......Page 344
HyperText Markup Language HTML......Page 346
References......Page 349