Computed Tomography: Physical Principles, Clinical Applications, and Quality Control

Front Cover......Page 1
IFC......Page 2
COMPUTED TOMOGRAPHY: Physical Principles, Clinical Applications, and Quality Control......Page 3
Copyright......Page 4
DEDICATION......Page 5
CONTRIBUTORS......Page 7
REVIEWERS......Page 9
FOREWORD......Page 11
PREFACE TO THE FOURTH EDITION......Page 13
CONTENT AND ORGANIZATION......Page 14
USE AND SCOPE......Page 15
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS......Page 16
CONTENTS......Page 19
KEY TERMS TO WATCH FOR AND REMEMBER......Page 27
Image Reconstruction from Projections......Page 28
Data Acquisition......Page 29
Image Display, Processing, Storage, Recording, and Communications......Page 30
HOW CT SCANNERS WORK......Page 31
Godfrey Newbold Hounsfield......Page 32
Allan MacLeod Cormack......Page 33
High-Speed CT Scanners......Page 34
Spiral/Helical CT Scanners: Volume Scanning......Page 36
Dual-Source CT Scanner......Page 38
Portable CT......Page 39
Radiation Dose Studies......Page 40
Other Uses......Page 41
CT Fluoroscopy......Page 43
Cardiac CT Imaging......Page 44
CT Screening......Page 46
Radiation Dose Optimization......Page 47
DIGITAL IMAGE PROCESSING......Page 48
REVIEW QUESTIONS......Page 49
REFERENCES......Page 50
BIBLIOGRAPHY......Page 51
LEARNING OBJECTIVES......Page 52
GENERIC DIGITAL IMAGING SYSTEM......Page 53
Image Display, Storage, and Communication......Page 54
HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVES......Page 55
Definitions......Page 56
Image Domains......Page 57
Matrix......Page 58
Voxels......Page 59
Effect of Digital Image Parameters on the Appearance of Digital Images......Page 60
Quantization......Page 61
Analog-to-Digital Conversion......Page 62
Why Digitize Images......Page 63
Point Operations......Page 64
Spatial Location Filtering: Convolution......Page 65
Spatial Frequency Filtering: Low-Pass Filtering......Page 67
Geometric Operations......Page 68
Types of Image Compression......Page 69
Magnetic Resonance Imaging......Page 70
Three-Dimensional Imaging in Radiology......Page 71
IMAGE-PROCESSING HARDWARE......Page 72
IMAGE PROCESSING: AN ESSENTIAL TOOL FOR CT......Page 73
REVIEW QUESTIONS......Page 74
REFERENCES......Page 75
KEY TERMS TO WATCH FOR AND REMEMBER......Page 76
Limitations of Conventional Tomography......Page 77
Data Acquisition......Page 79
Radiation Attenuation-Basic Physics......Page 80
Data Processing......Page 82
CT and Energy Dependence......Page 83
Display device. The grayscale image is displayed on a television monitor (Cathode ray tube [CRT]) or liquid crystal display, whi.........Page 85
Format of the CT Image......Page 86
TECHNOLOGICAL CONSIDERATIONS......Page 87
Sequence of Events......Page 88
Advantages......Page 89
REVIEW QUESTIONS......Page 90
REFERENCES......Page 91
LEARNING OBJECTIVES......Page 92
BASIC SCHEME FOR DATA ACQUISITION......Page 93
DATA ACQUISITION GEOMETRIES......Page 94
Rotating Fan Beam Within a Circular Detector Array......Page 95
Spiral/Helical Geometry Scanners......Page 96
Fifth-Generation Scanners......Page 97
Seventh-Generation Scanners: Flat-Panel CT Scanners......Page 98
SLIP-RING TECHNOLOGY......Page 99
Low-Voltage Slip Ring......Page 100
Advantages......Page 101
X-Ray Tubes......Page 102
Straton X-Ray Tube: A New X-Ray Tube for MSCT Scanning......Page 104
Alternative X-Ray Tube Designs for Multislice CT......Page 106
Filtration......Page 107
Collimation......Page 108
Detector Characteristics......Page 109
Scintillation Detectors......Page 110
Design Innovations......Page 112
The Stellar Detector......Page 113
The NanoPanel Prism Detector......Page 114
Detector-Based Spectral CT......Page 115
Multirow/Multislice Detectors......Page 117
The 256-Slice CT Prototype Detector......Page 118
Function......Page 119
Components......Page 120
DATA ACQUISITION AND SAMPLING......Page 121
New Sampling Technique: z-Sharp Technology......Page 122
REVIEW QUESTIONS......Page 124
REFERENCES......Page 125
KEY TERMS TO WATCH FOR AND REMEMBER......Page 127
Fourier Transform......Page 128
Problem in CT......Page 129
Back-Projection......Page 131
Iterative Algorithms......Page 132
Filtered Back-Projection......Page 133
Fourier Reconstruction......Page 134
TYPES OF DATA......Page 135
Image Data......Page 136
CONE-BEAM ALGORITHMS FOR MULTISLICE CT SCANNERS......Page 137
AN OVERVIEW OF THREE-DIMENSIONAL RECONSTRUCTION TECHNIQUES......Page 138
REVIEW QUESTIONS......Page 139
REFERENCES......Page 140
KEY TERMS TO WATCH FOR AND REMEMBER......Page 142
ASSUMPTIONS MADE TO DERIVE THE FBP ALGORITHM......Page 143
Input......Page 144
MODELING APPROACHES IN IR ALGORITHMS: AN OVERVIEW......Page 145
EXAMPLES OF IR ALGORITHMS......Page 148
PERFORMANCE EVALUATION STUDIES OF IR ALGORITHMS......Page 153
Examples in 2013......Page 154
Examples in 2015......Page 155
REVIEW QUESTIONS......Page 159
REFERENCES......Page 160
LEARNING OBJECTIVES......Page 162
Hardware Organization......Page 163
Types......Page 164
CT SCANNER—BASIC EQUIPMENT CONFIGURATION......Page 165
Gantry......Page 167
Patient Table......Page 168
Processing Architectures and Hardware......Page 169
The Graphics Processing Unit......Page 170
Imaging and Radiation Therapy Applications......Page 172
Image Display......Page 173
Laser Recording System......Page 174
Communications......Page 175
Picture Archiving and Communications Systems: A Definition......Page 176
Communication Protocol Standards......Page 177
Image Compression......Page 178
Options......Page 179
Equipment Specifications......Page 180
REVIEW QUESTIONS......Page 181
BIBLIOGRAPHY......Page 182
KEY TERMS TO WATCH FOR AND REMEMBER......Page 183
Definitions......Page 184
Manipulating Window Width and Window Level......Page 185
Effect of Window Width on Image Contrast......Page 188
Effect of Window Level on Image Brightness......Page 189
Preset Windows......Page 190
Multiplanar Reconstruction......Page 192
Basic Tools......Page 194
Advanced Tools......Page 195
REVIEW QUESTIONS......Page 197
REFERENCES......Page 198
KEY TERMS TO WATCH FOR AND REMEMBER......Page 200
Definition and Measurements......Page 201
Factors Affecting Resolution......Page 202
Cross-Plane Spatial Resolution......Page 204
Definition and Measurements......Page 206
Factors That Affect Low-Contrast Detectability......Page 207
Factors That Affect Temporal Resolution......Page 209
Techniques to Reduce Motion Impact......Page 210
Accuracy and Linearity......Page 211
Measurements......Page 213
Noise Sources......Page 214
Definition and General Discussion......Page 215
Types and Causes......Page 216
Metal Artifacts......Page 217
Beam-Hardening Artifacts......Page 219
Partial Volume Artifacts......Page 220
Aliasing Artifacts......Page 222
Noise-Induced Artifacts......Page 223
Cone-Beam Artifacts......Page 224
REVIEW QUESTIONS......Page 225
REFERENCES......Page 226
LEARNING OBJECTIVES......Page 228
RADIATION QUANTITIES AND THEIR UNITS......Page 229
Stochastic Effects......Page 230
PATIENT EXPOSURE PATTERNS IN RADIOGRAPHY AND CT......Page 231
CT DOSIMETRY CONCEPTS......Page 232
Phantoms for CT Dose Measurement......Page 233
Multiple-Scan Average Dose......Page 235
CT Dose Metrics and Calculation......Page 236
Dose Length Product......Page 237
Measuring the CT Dose Index......Page 238
Constant Milliamperage-Seconds......Page 239
Collimation (Z-Axis Geometric Efficiency)......Page 240
Over-Ranging (Z-Overscanning)......Page 241
Patient Centering......Page 242
Definition of Automatic Tube Current Modulation......Page 243
Defined Level of Image Quality in CT Automatic Exposure Control......Page 244
IMAGE QUALITY AND DOSE: OPERATOR CONSIDERATIONS......Page 246
CT DOSE OPTIMIZATION......Page 247
Early Dose Optimization Strategies......Page 248
Research on Dose Optimization and Image Quality1......Page 250
Radiation Protection Actions......Page 251
Radiation Protection Principles......Page 252
IMAGE WISELY AND IMAGE GENTLY......Page 253
REVIEW QUESTIONS......Page 254
REFERENCES......Page 255
LEARNING OBJECTIVES......Page 258
Terminology Controversy......Page 259
Scanning Sequence......Page 260
PRINCIPLES OF SSCT SCANNERS......Page 261
Requirements for Volume Scanning......Page 262
Data Acquisition......Page 263
Image Reconstruction......Page 264
360-Degree Linear Interpolation Algorithm......Page 265
INSTRUMENTATION......Page 266
Equipment Components......Page 267
BASIC SCAN PARAMETERS......Page 268
Terminology......Page 269
Dual-Slice CT Scanners......Page 271
SSCT......Page 272
Collimation. The fundamental collimation scheme is shown in Figure 11-20, B. The beam is collimated by a precollimator to fall o.........Page 273
Beam geometry. As the number of detector rows in a multirow detector array increases, the beam becomes wider to cover the 2D det.........Page 274
Pitch—International Electrotechnical Commission Definition......Page 275
Multislice Reconstruction......Page 276
MSCT for up to four detector rows. In MSCT, the z-gap is determined by the pitch (as in SSCT) and by the detector row spacing, d.........Page 277
MSCT for 16 or more detector rows. The previous description lends itself to MSCT scanners with up to four detector rows. These s.........Page 279
Two-Dimensional Approximate Algorithm......Page 281
MSCT Detectors......Page 283
Detector Materials......Page 284
Slice Thickness Selection......Page 285
Data Acquisition System......Page 287
Computer System......Page 288
Data Acquisition......Page 289
IMAGE QUALITY CONSIDERATIONS......Page 290
The 256-Slice Beta Four-Dimensional CT Scanner......Page 291
The 320-Slice Dynamic Volume CT Scanner......Page 293
BEYOND SINGLE-SOURCE MULTISLICE CT SCANNERS: DUAL-SOURCE CT SCANNER......Page 294
Cardiac Imaging with the Dual-Source CT Scanner......Page 295
ADVANTAGES OF MSCT......Page 296
TECHNICAL APPLICATIONS......Page 297
REVIEW QUESTIONS......Page 298
REFERENCES......Page 299
LEARNING OBJECTIVES......Page 302
Definition......Page 303
Acquisition Parameters......Page 305
Contrast Medium Administration......Page 306
Image Postprocessing Techniques: Volumetric Image Visualization Tools......Page 307
Use of the graphics processing unit. In Chapter 7, the graphics processing unit (GPU) was introduced as an innovative piece of c.........Page 308
Fast continuous scanning. Fast continuous scanning was a major technological development in CT, which resulted in spiral/helical.........Page 309
Fast image reconstruction. In real-time CT fluoroscopy, fast image reconstruction is made possible by a set of hardware componen.........Page 310
X-Ray Technique Parameters......Page 311
Radiation Dose Considerations......Page 312
APPLICATIONS IN RADIATION THERAPY: CT SIMULATION......Page 314
CT Simulator......Page 315
Medical Image Fusion Areas of Studies......Page 316
Steps in Medical Image Fusion......Page 317
Definition and Use......Page 318
Technical Elements......Page 320
Use of antiscatter grids. A fundamental problem with FD-CT scanners is that of scatter radiation artifacts due to the wide cone-.........Page 321
Major Technical Components......Page 322
Research Studies......Page 323
Radiation Doses......Page 324
QUANTITATIVE CT......Page 325
System Features......Page 326
Contrast resolution. Contrast resolution refers to the ability of the scanner to demonstrate small differences in tissue contras.........Page 327
System Features and Imaging Performance......Page 328
REVIEW QUESTIONS......Page 330
REFERENCES......Page 331
LEARNING OBJECTIVES......Page 334
KEY TERMS TO WATCH FOR AND REMEMBER......Page 335
HISTORY......Page 336
Modeling......Page 337
Rendering......Page 338
Slice Imaging......Page 339
Definition of Three-Dimensional Medical Imaging......Page 340
Processing for Three-Dimensional Image Display......Page 342
RENDERING TECHNIQUES......Page 343
Surface Rendering......Page 344
Volume Rendering......Page 345
Intensity Projection Renderings......Page 346
Maximum Intensity Projection......Page 348
Minimum Intensity Projection......Page 349
Comparison of Three-Dimensional Rendering Techniques......Page 350
Stand-Alone Workstations......Page 352
FUTURE OF THREE-DIMENSIONAL IMAGING......Page 353
Data Acquisition......Page 354
Three-Dimensional Rendering......Page 355
APPLICATIONS OF VIRTUAL ENDOSCOPY......Page 356
Virtual Dissection......Page 357
ADVANTAGES AND LIMITATIONS......Page 358
CT Endoscopy Tool......Page 359
FLIGHT PATH PLANNING......Page 361
FUTURE OF CT VIRTUAL ENDOSCOPY......Page 362
ROLE OF THE RADIOLOGIC TECHNOLOGIST......Page 363
REFERENCES......Page 364
KEY TERMS TO WATCH FOR AND REMEMBER......Page 367
PRINCIPLES OF PET IMAGING......Page 368
PRINCIPLES OF SPECT IMAGING......Page 373
Attenuation Correction......Page 375
CT-Based Attenuation Correction......Page 376
Clinical PET/CT Data Acquisition......Page 377
Epilepsy: FDG......Page 380
Clinical SPECT/CT Data Acquisition......Page 381
Parathyroid Imaging......Page 383
Thyroid Imaging......Page 384
Lymphoscintigraphy......Page 385
REVIEW QUESTIONS......Page 387
REFERENCES......Page 388
KEY TERMS TO WATCH FOR AND REMEMBER......Page 390
Head and Face......Page 391
Cerebral Blood Vessels......Page 393
Spine and Neck......Page 396
ROLE OF CT COMPARED WITH OTHER IMAGING MODALITIES......Page 397
SECTIONAL ANATOMY: A REVIEW......Page 398
Coronal Sections......Page 399
Neck......Page 401
PATIENT PREPARATION......Page 402
POSITIONING......Page 403
Head and Its Contents......Page 404
The Spine......Page 405
Cerebral Blood Vessels......Page 406
Slice Thickness......Page 407
CONTRAST MEDIA USAGE......Page 408
REVIEW QUESTIONS......Page 410
FURTHER READING......Page 411
KEY TERMS TO WATCH FOR AND REMEMBER......Page 412
Mediastinum......Page 413
Lung......Page 414
Cardiac......Page 416
Bowel......Page 417
Pancreas......Page 419
Adrenal Glands......Page 421
Pelvis......Page 422
Abscess Drainage......Page 424
Musculoskeletal System......Page 425
Patient Information......Page 426
Oral Contrast Media......Page 427
Intravenous Contrast Agents......Page 428
Thorax......Page 429
Abdomen and Pelvis......Page 430
REVIEW QUESTIONS......Page 433
REFERENCES......Page 434
LEARNING OBJECTIVES......Page 438
Differences Versus Single-Detector CT......Page 439
Patient Management......Page 440
Sedation......Page 441
Use of Intravenous Contrast Media......Page 442
Scan Planning and Preparation......Page 443
Scan Parameters......Page 444
CT of the Face and Neck......Page 445
Patient Positioning......Page 446
CT OF THE CHEST AND ABDOMEN......Page 447
Trauma......Page 448
High-Resolution CT......Page 449
Complex Fractures......Page 451
Infections......Page 452
Patient Positioning......Page 453
Patient Positioning and Preparation......Page 454
Scanning Protocols......Page 457
REVIEW QUESTIONS......Page 458
BIBLIOGRAPHY......Page 459
KEY TERMS TO WATCH FOR AND REMEMBER......Page 460
Essential Steps in a QC Program......Page 461
The Catphan 700......Page 462
WHY QUALITY CONTROL......Page 464
THREE TENETS OF QUALITY CONTROL......Page 465
QUALITY CONTROL TESTS FOR CT SCANNERS......Page 466
Quality Control Tests......Page 467
ACR CT Accreditation QC Tests......Page 468
Proposed QC Tests......Page 469
REVIEW QUESTIONS......Page 483
REFERENCES......Page 484
REFERENCES......Page 485
ESSENTIAL TECHNICAL CONSIDERATIONS FOR CARDIAC COMPUTER TOMOGRAPHY IMAGING......Page 486
Spatial Resolution......Page 487
Radiation Dose Considerations......Page 488
REFERENCES......Page 489
CHAPTER 6......Page 491
CHAPTER 14......Page 492
CHAPTER 18......Page 493
B......Page 494
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M......Page 498
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Z......Page 502
A......Page 503
C......Page 504
D......Page 506
G......Page 507
I......Page 508
L......Page 509
M......Page 510
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R......Page 512
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T......Page 515
Z......Page 516
Back Cover......Page 518