Compression Machinery for Oil and Gas

Cover......Page 1
Compression
Machinery for Oil
and Gas
......Page 3
Copyright......Page 4
Contributors......Page 5
The Editors......Page 7
Preface......Page 9
Acknowledgments......Page 12
Section I: Fundamentals of Compression
......Page 13
Dynamic Compressors......Page 14
Basic Thermodynamics......Page 15
First Law......Page 16
Intercooling......Page 18
Equations of State......Page 19
Basic Machinery Dynamics......Page 20
References......Page 22
Types of Compression Equipment......Page 23
Upstream......Page 25
Downstream......Page 26
Compression Ratio and Maximum Temperatures......Page 28
Gas Type (Sour Gas, Wet Gas, etc.)......Page 29
Emissions, Noise, and Safety......Page 30
Operating and Maintenance Costs......Page 32
Service Life......Page 34
Automated/Manual Controls......Page 35
Packaging Issues......Page 36
References......Page 37
Section II: Types of Equipment
......Page 38
General Requirements for Range, Pressure Ratio, and Performance for Inline Centrifugal Compressors in Various Applications?......Page 39
Elements of an Inline Centrifugal Compressor......Page 40
Horizontal Split......Page 41
Hermetically Sealed......Page 42
Multisection......Page 43
Impeller......Page 45
Diffuser and Return Channel......Page 46
Volute......Page 47
Balance Piston/Division Wall Seal......Page 48
Antiswirl Mechanisms......Page 49
Shaft End......Page 50
Static Seals......Page 53
Shaft......Page 54
Bearings......Page 55
Euler's Equations......Page 58
Operating Regimes of a Centrifugal Compressor......Page 63
Surge......Page 64
Stall......Page 65
Compressor Control......Page 66
Variable Speed......Page 67
Process Control With Centrifugal Compressors Driven by Two-Shaft Gas Turbines......Page 69
Multiple Units......Page 70
Pressure Vessel......Page 71
Lateral Rotordynamics......Page 72
Rotordynamic Modeling and Analysis......Page 73
Torsional Rotordynamics......Page 80
Blade and Disk Vibrations......Page 83
Deflection......Page 86
Hot/Cold Applications, Centerline Mounting......Page 87
Piping/Flange loads......Page 88
Thrust Loads......Page 89
Foundation......Page 96
Dry Gas......Page 98
Wet......Page 104
Liquid Film Seal Oil Supply System......Page 107
Bearing/Lube Oil......Page 108
Interaction With Reciprocating Compressors and Aerodynamic Stability......Page 111
Erosion/Fouling/Plugging of Components and Mitigation Strategies......Page 112
Parallel/Serial......Page 115
Typical Compressor Types and Their Market Space......Page 116
Gas Transmission Compressor......Page 121
Injection......Page 122
LNG......Page 125
Hydrogen Recycle......Page 127
Air/Nitrogen......Page 128
Design for Maintenance......Page 129
Predictive Maintenance......Page 131
Preventive Maintenance......Page 132
Sparing and Availability......Page 133
Principles of Gas Compressor Restage......Page 134
Restage Applications......Page 135
Running Slow......Page 136
Restage Criteria......Page 137
References......Page 138
Further Reading......Page 141
Introduction......Page 142
Advantages......Page 143
Design Speed......Page 144
Intercooling......Page 145
Variable Geometry......Page 146
Size......Page 147
Sealing......Page 148
Design Process......Page 149
Drivers......Page 151
Aerodynamics......Page 152
Flow Control......Page 154
Gears......Page 155
Thrust Management......Page 157
Bearings......Page 158
Lubrication......Page 160
Rotordynamics......Page 161
Casings......Page 163
Mechanical Design......Page 165
Operation......Page 167
Midstream......Page 168
Petrochemical......Page 169
Summary......Page 170
References......Page 171
Further Reading......Page 172
Compressors Without a Crosshead......Page 173
Other Types of Reciprocating Compressors......Page 174
Advantages and Disadvantages Compared to Other Compressors......Page 175
Average Linear Piston Speed......Page 176
Effect of Torque Pulsations......Page 177
Induction Motors......Page 178
Synchronous Motors......Page 179
Torque Pulsation......Page 181
Engines......Page 182
Turbines and Gearboxes......Page 183
Couplings......Page 184
Importance of Pulsation Studies......Page 185
Vibration Concerns......Page 186
Key Guidance From Standards......Page 188
Cylinder Swept Volume Process Overview......Page 189
Types......Page 191
Dynamics......Page 192
System Model......Page 195
Example Calculations......Page 196
Baseline Results......Page 197
Increased Gas Density......Page 199
Changing Piston Velocity......Page 201
Capacity......Page 204
Volumetric Efficiency......Page 206
Power......Page 207
Friction......Page 214
Pulsation Bottle Losses......Page 215
Cylinder Cooling Effects......Page 216
Recycle......Page 217
Head-End Fixed Volume Clearance Pocket......Page 218
Valve Clearance Spacer......Page 220
Finger-Type Suction Valve Unloader......Page 221
Head-End Bypass......Page 223
Pulsation Control......Page 225
Bottle Design......Page 226
Cylinder Orifice Plates......Page 228
Nozzle Pulsation......Page 229
Torsional Rotordynamics......Page 230
Torsional Mass Elastic Models......Page 232
Torsional Stiffening Effect of Induction Motor Webs......Page 235
Steady-State Analysis......Page 239
Allowable Stress Methodology for Torsional Systems......Page 241
Torsional Damping......Page 244
Transient Torsional Analysis......Page 245
Resolution of Typical Torsional Problems......Page 249
Testing Methods for Torsional Systems......Page 251
Reciprocating Compressor Lateral Rotordynamics......Page 255
References......Page 257
Working Principle of Screw Compressors......Page 259
Undercompression......Page 262
Overcompression......Page 263
Comparison of Positive Displacement Machines (Screw Compressor, Reciprocating Compressor) Versus Centrifugal Compressors......Page 264
Dry Screw Compressors......Page 266
Oil-Flooded Screw Compressors......Page 267
Design Features......Page 271
Rotor Design......Page 272
Shaft Ends and Coupling......Page 273
Two-Stage Casing Arrangement......Page 274
Shaft Seals for Dry Screw Compressors......Page 275
Driveshaft Seals for Oil-Flooded Screw Compressors......Page 282
Suction Flow and Power Consumption Versus Compressor Speed......Page 283
Actual Suction Volume Flow Versus Pressure Ratio......Page 285
Power Consumption Versus Discharge Pressure......Page 286
Actual Suction Volume Flow and Power Consumption Versus Molecular Weight for Dry Screw Compressors......Page 288
Actual Suction Volume Flow and Power Consumption Versus Molecular Weight for Oil-Flooded Screw Compressors......Page 289
Power Consumption Versus vi for Oil-Flooded Screw Compressors......Page 290
Starting of Dry Screw Compressors......Page 291
Stopping of Dry Screw Compressors and Settle-Out Pressure......Page 292
Stopping of Flooded Screw Compressors and SOP......Page 293
Injection Above Saturation Temperature......Page 294
Liquid Injection Flows for Dry and Oil-Injected Screw Compressors/Liquid Hammer......Page 295
Design Range for Dry Screws......Page 296
Design Range for Oil-Flooded Screws......Page 307
Lateral Rotordynamics......Page 308
Pulsation and Vibration......Page 310
References......Page 538
Overview of Gas Turbine Components......Page 314
Performance......Page 318
Reciprocating Engines......Page 319
Durability......Page 322
Basic Principles......Page 324
Rotor Circuit Resistance and Motor Torque......Page 329
Reciprocating Compressors......Page 331
Centrifugal Compressors......Page 336
Synchronous Motors......Page 337
Why Use Synchronous Motors?......Page 338
Natural Frequency......Page 339
Induction motor......Page 341
Lateral Pulsation......Page 342
Variable Frequency Drives......Page 343
Steam Turbines......Page 348
Types......Page 349
Application as a Compressor Driver......Page 353
Major components......Page 355
Selection......Page 361
Performance......Page 363
Operation......Page 364
Steam Turbine Maintenance/Reliability......Page 366
Performance Degradation......Page 369
Expanders in Cryogenic Applications......Page 370
Hot Gas Expanders......Page 374
Thermodynamics of Gas Expanders......Page 375
References......Page 377
Section III: Applications
......Page 378
Introduction......Page 379
Associated Gas (Flash Gas) Compression......Page 380
Nonassociated Gas Compression......Page 381
Gas Lift......Page 383
Reinjection......Page 384
Gas Processing Plant......Page 385
Corrosion......Page 387
Changing Process Conditions......Page 388
References......Page 389
Midstream Activities......Page 390
Pipeline Design......Page 392
Station Piping Design......Page 395
Piping Supports, Thermal Stress, and Vibration Control......Page 396
Foot Print Size/Weight/Unbalanced Forces/Foundations......Page 397
Metering, Pressure Regulation, and Custody Transfer......Page 400
Storage Reservoirs......Page 401
Local and National Pipeline Regulations......Page 402
Further Reading......Page 403
References......Page 427
Refinery Applications......Page 404
LNG Production......Page 405
Compressor Configurations and Compressor Technology Milestones......Page 406
Compressor Technology Milestones......Page 407
Horizontally Split and Barrel Designs......Page 409
Back-to-Back LNG Compressor Designs......Page 410
Centrifugal Compressor Design and Performance......Page 412
Two-dimensional (2D) and 3D Impellers......Page 413
Machine Mach Number and Inlet Relative Mach Number......Page 414
Impeller Head per Stage......Page 415
Compressor Design Trade-offs and Compromises......Page 416
Aerodynamic Mismatching of Stages......Page 417
Mechanical Run Tests......Page 418
Performance Tests......Page 419
String Tests......Page 420
Auxiliary Compressors......Page 421
Fuel Gas Compression (FGC)......Page 422
Reciprocating Compressors......Page 429
Centrifugal Compressors......Page 430
Operational Considerations......Page 431
Reciprocating Compressors......Page 432
Pulsation Dampeners......Page 433
Cylinder Orifice Plates......Page 435
Mixed Compression......Page 436
Flow-Induced Excitation Analyses: FIV, AIV, and FIT......Page 437
System Dynamic Analyses......Page 440
Transient Surge in Centrifugal Compressor Systems......Page 441
Station Dynamics......Page 443
Rotordynamic Analyses......Page 445
Mechanical: Skid and Piping Analyses......Page 447
References......Page 448
Further Reading......Page 449
Motivation, Justification, and Objectives......Page 450
Pressure......Page 451
Vibration......Page 452
Data Acquisition......Page 454
Uncertainty and Error Sources......Page 455
Axial and Centrifugal Compressors......Page 456
Reciprocating Compressors......Page 459
Screw Compressors......Page 461
References......Page 462
Introduction......Page 463
Centrifugal Compressors......Page 464
Reciprocating Compressors......Page 465
Electric Motor Drives......Page 466
Steam Turbines......Page 467
Couplings......Page 468
Torque Convertors......Page 469
Instrumentation and Data......Page 470
Piping and Pressure Vessels......Page 471
Performance Testing and Inspection......Page 472
Rotordynamics......Page 473
Machinery Installation......Page 474
Health, Safety, and Fire......Page 475
Further Reading......Page 477
Section IV: Technology Developments
......Page 482
Introduction......Page 483
Wet Gas Defined in the Upper Limit......Page 484
Experimental Testing......Page 487
General Arrangement......Page 488
Liquid Injection......Page 490
Sealing on the Compressor......Page 495
Pressure, Temperature, and Flow Rate Measurement and Control......Page 496
Screw Type......Page 498
Screw Pumps in Wet Gas Conditions......Page 499
Additional Observed and Tested Issues......Page 501
Reciprocating Compressors......Page 502
Erosion......Page 503
Corrosion......Page 505
Damage From Liquid Slugging......Page 506
Mechanical Vibrations and Lube/Seal Oil Interactions With Wet Gas......Page 508
Lube/Seal Oil Interactions in Reciprocating Compressor Applications......Page 511
Difficulties in Testing......Page 512
Important Test Variables......Page 513
Effects of Liquid Distribution......Page 514
Liquid Distribution......Page 516
Liquid Distribution Inside a Rotating Impeller......Page 519
Compressor Leading Edge......Page 520
Inside Compressor Impeller......Page 523
Compressor Trailing Edge and Diffuser......Page 527
Experimental Research......Page 530
Direct Integration Approach......Page 532
Evaporation Performance Models......Page 533
Compressor Aerodynamic Performance......Page 534
Compressor Rotordynamics......Page 536
Liquid Separation......Page 537
Subsea Compression......Page 540
Subsea Requirements......Page 543
Subsea Compression System Concepts......Page 547
Compressor Internals......Page 550
Subsea Compressor Concepts......Page 551
Bearings......Page 552
Motor......Page 553
OneSubsea: WGC (Wet Gas Compressor)......Page 554
Hermetically Sealed and Oil-Free Compression......Page 555
Stator Windings Exposed to the Process Gas Versus Canned Windings......Page 557
High-Pressure Compressors......Page 558
High-Speed Drive Trains......Page 561
Integrated Separator Centrifugal Compressor......Page 563
Cooled Diaphragms for Centrifugal Compressors......Page 565
Subsurface Compression......Page 567
Advanced Seals......Page 570
Gas Bearings......Page 571
Additive Manufacturing......Page 572
Gas Property Testing......Page 574
Linear Motor Compressor......Page 576
Project Goal......Page 577
Technical Overview......Page 578
Advanced Pulsation Control for Reciprocating Compressors......Page 579
Advanced Reciprocating Compressor Valve Technology......Page 581
Surge Force Predictions......Page 582
Liquid Packing Seals for Reciprocating Compressors......Page 584
References......Page 586
Further Reading......Page 588
C......Page 589
D......Page 590
G......Page 591
I......Page 592
N......Page 594
R......Page 595
S......Page 596
W......Page 598
Back Cover......Page 600