Comprehensive Diagnostic Approach to Bladder. Cancer Molecular Imaging and Biomarkers

Foreword
Contents
Contributors
Chapter 1: Epidemiology of Bladder Cancer: Trends and Disparities
	Incidence and Natural History
	Non-muscle Invasive Bladder Cancer
	Muscle-Invasive Bladder Cancer
	Metastatic Bladder Cancer
	Variant Histology
	National and Global Trends
	Disparities in the Diagnosis and Treatment of Bladder Cancer
		Gender
		Race
		Insurance
		Geography
	Financial Toxicity
	Disparities in Survivorship
		Urinary Diversion
		Sexual Function
	Conclusion
	References
Chapter 2: Environmental and Genetic Factors Contributing to Bladder Carcinogenesis
	Introduction
	Environmental Risk Factors
		Arsenic
		Aristolochia
		Diet
			Food
			Fluid Intake
			Vitamins
		Medications
			Cyclophosphamide
			Pioglitazone
			Phenacetin
		Radiation
		Immunosuppression
		Infection
			Recurrent Bacterial Urinary Tract Infections
		Schistosoma haematobium
		Epstein–Barr Virus
		Neisseria gonorrhea
		Human papillomavirus
		Polyomaviruses
		Smoking
			Cigarette Smoking
			Electronic Cigarettes
			Others
		Gender
		Race
		Occupational Risk
			Polyaromatic Hydrocarbons
			Hair Dye
		Genetic Predisposition
			Genetic Polymorphisms
			Germline Mutations
	Conclusion
	References
Chapter 3: Strategies for Bladder Cancer Screening
	Introduction
	Rationale for Screening
	High-Risk Populations
		Age
		Cigarette Smoking
	Prior Screening Trials: Comparing Cohorts and Methods of Screening
		Urine Dipstick (Chemical Reagent Strip for Hemoglobin)
		Urine Cytology
		Other Urinary Biomarkers
	Looking Forward: Design of and Challenges in an Ongoing Bladder Cancer Screening Trial
	References
Chapter 4: Staging of Bladder Cancer
	Introduction
	Diagnosis
	Staging Modalities
		TURBT
			Cystoscopy Enhancements
			Resection Method
			Influence of Energy Type
			Special Staging Circumstances: Diverticulae
			Bimanual Exam
			Accuracy of Staging: Importance of Repeat TURBT
			Imaging
		Staging
			Current TNM Staging
			Historical Considerations and Updates
		Risk Stratification Schema
		Surveillance Protocols
			Non-muscle-Invasive Disease
			Recurrence After BCG
	Conclusion
	References
Chapter 5: Conventional and Investigational Imaging Modalities
	Introduction
	Role of Imaging in the Diagnosis of Bladder Cancer and Directing the Therapeutic Approach
	Imaging Modalities
		Ultrasound
			Imaging Technique
			Imaging Role, Clinical Impact, and Accuracy of US
		Computed Tomography
			Imaging Technique
			Imaging Role, Clinical Impact, and Accuracy of CT
		Magnetic Resonance Imaging
			Imaging Technique
				MR Urography
				Bladder Cancer Staging
			Imaging Role, Clinical Impact, and Accuracy of MR
				MR Urography
				Bladder Cancer Staging
					T Staging
					N Staging
		Radiomics and Bladder Cancer
	Conclusion and Future Directions
	References
Chapter 6: Evaluation of Hematuria
	Epidemiology and Definitions of Hematuria
	Etiologies of Hematuria
		Pseudohematuria
		Benign Causes of Hematuria
		Malignant Causes of Hematuria
	Indications for Workup of Hematuria
		AUA Guideline Review
		Variation Among International Hematuria Guidelines
		Patient History and Unique Patient Circumstances
			Women
			Antithrombotics
	Components of the Diagnostic Evaluation of Hematuria
		Cystoscopy
		Upper Tract Imaging
			Cross-Sectional Imaging with Contrast Enhancement
			Renal Ultrasound
		Urine Cytology
		Future Potential Use of Urine Markers and Biomarkers
		Risks Associated with Evaluation
	Novel Risk Stratification Approaches for Microscopic Hematuria
	Conclusion
	References
Chapter 7: Molecular Imaging Modalities: Applications of Current and Novel Radiotracers
	Introduction
	Assessment of Residual Tumor After TURBT
	Bladder Cancer Staging
		18F-FDG PET/CT
			Primary Tumor Staging
			Lymph Node Staging
		18F-FDG PET/MRI
		11C-Choline PET/CT
		11C-Acetate PET
	Response to Neoadjuvant Chemotherapy
	Detection of Bone Metastases
	Radiotracers and Immunotherapy
	Investigational Radiotracers
	Imaging Guidelines
		Non-muscle-Invasive Bladder Cancer
		Muscle-Invasive and Metastatic Bladder Cancer
	Conclusions
	References
Chapter 8: Optical Techniques for Bladder Cancer Detection: The Role of Cystoscopy and Enhanced Cystoscopy
	Standard White Light Cystoscopy
	Techniques to Reduce Pain
	Use of Antibiotics
	Enhanced Cystoscopic Modalities
		Narrow-Band Imaging
		Blue Light Cystoscopy with TURBT
		Flexible Blue Light Cystoscopy
		Near-Infrared Fluorescence Imaging
	AUA/SUO Guidelines
	Future Directions
	Conclusion
	References
Chapter 9: Urine Cytology in the Clinical Management of Bladder Cancer
	Introduction
	Urinary Tract Cytomorphology and the Paris System for Reporting Urinary Cytology (TPS)
	Urine Cytology in Clinical Practice
	Methods of Obtaining Urine Cytology
	Specimen Preparation and Adequacy Assessment
	Performance Characteristics of Urine Cytology in Detecting Clinically Significant UC of the Bladder
	Urine Cytology in the Diagnostic Evaluation of Hematuria
	Urine Cytology for Surveillance of UC of the Bladder
	Conclusion
	References
Chapter 10: Urinary Biomarkers: Current Status and Future Opportunities
	Introduction
	Defining an Ideal Bladder Cancer Diagnosis and Surveillance Test
	Current Commercially Available Tests for Bladder Cancer Diagnosis
		UroVysion
		Bladder Tumor Antigen (BTA)
		Cx Bladder
		NMP22 BladderChek
		Xpert Detection
		UroSEEK
		AssureMDx
	Current Commercial Tests for Bladder Cancer Surveillance
		UroVysion
		ImmunoCyt/uCyt+
		BTA Stat/BTA Trak
		NMP22 BladderChek/NMP22-BC
		Cx Bladder Monitor
		Uromonitor
		Epicheck
	Potential Urinary Biomarkers
		Protein Biomarkers
		Genomic Biomarkers
			Telomerase
			Fibroblast Growth Factor Receptor 3
			Aurora Kinase A
		Epigenetic Biomarkers
			DNA Methylation
			MicroRNAs
		Transcriptomic Biomarkers
		Inflammatory Biomarkers
		Metabolic Biomarkers
		Combination Biomarkers
	Conclusions
	References
Chapter 11: Bladder Cancer Genomics: Indications for Sequencing and Diagnostic Implications
	Introduction
	Primer on Next-Generation Sequencing
	Muscle-Invasive Bladder Cancer
	Non-muscle-Invasive Bladder Cancer
	Advanced and Metastatic Bladder Cancer
	Germline Alterations
	Liquid Biopsy
		Circulating Tumor Cells and Cell-Free Tumor DNA
		Urinary Cell-Free Tumor DNA
	Guidelines and Practical Approach
	Conclusions
	References
Chapter 12: Novel and Investigational Diagnostics: Liquid Biopsy and Beyond
	Introduction
	Circulating Tumor Cells
	Circulating Tumor DNA
	Circulating Tumor RNA
	Metabolites
	Other Serum-Based Biomarkers
	Conclusion
	References
Index