Composites manufacturing : materials, product, and process engineering

COMPOSITES MANUFACTURING: Materials, Product, and Process Engineering......Page 2
Preface......Page 5
Acknowledgments......Page 7
Author......Page 8
Contents......Page 9
1.1 Conventional Engineering Materials......Page 20
Table of Contents......Page 0
1.1.1 Metals......Page 21
1.1.4 Composites......Page 22
1.2 What Are Composites?......Page 23
1.3 Functions of Fibers and Matrix......Page 24
1.4 Special Features of Composites......Page 25
1.5 Drawbacks of Composites......Page 28
1.6 Composites Processing......Page 29
1.7 Composites Product Fabrication......Page 30
1.8 Composites Markets......Page 32
1.8.1 The Aerospace Industry......Page 33
1.8.2 The Automotive Industry......Page 36
1.8.4 Marine Applications......Page 37
1.8.7 Industrial Applications......Page 38
Questions......Page 39
2.2 Reinforcements......Page 41
2.2.2 Carbon Fiber Manufacturing......Page 45
2.3 Matrix Materials......Page 46
2.3.1 Thermoset Resins......Page 47
2.3.1.1 Epoxy......Page 48
2.3.1.3 Polyesters......Page 49
2.3.1.7 Polyurethane......Page 50
2.3.2 Thermoplastic Resins......Page 51
2.3.2.1 Nylons......Page 52
2.3.2.4 Polyphenylene Sulfide (PPS)......Page 53
2.4.1 Woven Fabrics......Page 54
2.4.2 Noncrimp Fabrics......Page 55
2.5 Prepregs......Page 58
2.5.2 Thermoplastic Prepregs......Page 61
2.6 Preforms......Page 62
2.7 Molding Compound......Page 65
2.7.1 Sheet Molding Compound......Page 66
2.7.2 Thick Molding Compound (TMC)......Page 67
2.7.3 Bulk Molding Compound (BMC)......Page 69
2.8 Honeycomb and Other Core Materials......Page 70
Questions......Page 73
3.2 The Need for Material Selection......Page 74
3.3 Reasons for Material Selection......Page 75
3.4 Material Property Information......Page 76
3.5.2 Selection of Possible Materials......Page 77
3.5.3 Determination of Candidate Materials......Page 78
3.5.4 Testing and Evaluation......Page 79
3.6.1 Cost vs. Property Analysis......Page 80
3.6.2 Weighted Property Comparison Method......Page 83
3.6.2.3 Scaling for Nonquantitative Property......Page 84
3.6.3 Expert System for Material Selection......Page 85
Questions......Page 86
4.1 Introduction......Page 87
4.3 Reasons for Product Development......Page 88
4.4 Importance of Product Development......Page 89
4.5 Concurrent Engineering......Page 90
4.6 Product Life Cycle......Page 92
4.7.1 Concept Feasibility Phase......Page 93
4.7.3 Prototype Development and Testing Phase......Page 94
4.7.4 Preproduction Demonstration, or Pilot-Scale Production......Page 95
4.8 Design Review......Page 96
4.9 Failure Modes and Effects Analysis (FMEA)......Page 97
Questions......Page 99
5.1 Introduction......Page 100
5.2 Design Problems......Page 101
5.3 What Is DFM?......Page 102
5.4.1 Minimize Part Counts......Page 103
5.4.3 Minimize Variations......Page 104
5.4.7 Consider Ease for Handling......Page 105
5.4.10 Prefer Modular Design......Page 106
5.5.2 Laser Printer......Page 107
5.7 Design Evaluation Method......Page 108
5.8 Design for Assembly (DFA)......Page 109
5.8.2 Assembly-Related Defects......Page 110
5.8.3 Guidelines for Minimizing Assembly Defects......Page 112
Questions......Page 113
6.1 Introduction......Page 114
6.2.1 Production Rate/Speed......Page 115
6.2.5 Shape......Page 116
6.3 Product Fabrication Needs......Page 118
6.4.1.2 Coefficient of Thermal Expansion of Tool Material and End Product......Page 119
6.4.2.1 Machining......Page 120
6.4.2.2 FRP Tooling for Open Molding Processes......Page 121
6.4.3 Tooling Guidelines for Closed Molding Operations......Page 123
6.5 Basic Steps in a Composites Manufacturing Process......Page 130
6.5.3 Consolidation......Page 131
6.6.1 Advantages of Thermoset Composites Processing......Page 132
6.7 Composites Manufacturing Processes......Page 133
6.8.1 Prepreg Lay-Up Process......Page 134
6.8.1.1 Major Applications......Page 135
6.8.1.4 Making of the Part......Page 137
6.8.1.5 Methods of Applying Heat and Pressure......Page 141
6.8.1.7 Typical Manufacturing Challenges......Page 142
6.8.2.1 Major Applications......Page 143
6.8.2.4 Making of the Part......Page 146
6.8.2.6 Basic Processing Steps......Page 149
6.8.3.1 Major Applications......Page 150
6.8.3.4 Making of the Part......Page 151
6.8.3.6 Basic Processing Steps......Page 154
6.8.4 Filament Winding Process......Page 155
6.8.4.1 Major Applications......Page 156
6.8.4.3 Tooling......Page 158
6.8.4.4 Making of the Part......Page 159
6.8.4.5 Methods of Applying Heat and Pressure......Page 161
6.8.4.6 Methods of Generating the Desired Winding Angle......Page 162
6.8.4.7 Basic Processing Steps......Page 163
6.8.4.8 Advantages of the Filament Winding Process......Page 164
6.8.5.1 Major Applications......Page 165
6.8.5.2 Basic Raw Materials......Page 167
6.8.5.4 Making of the Part......Page 169
6.8.5.4.1 Wall Thickness......Page 170
6.8.5.5 Methods of Applying Heat and Pressure......Page 171
6.8.5.8 Limitations of the Pultrusion Process......Page 172
6.8.6.1 Major Applications......Page 173
6.8.6.2 Basic Raw Materials......Page 176
6.8.6.3 Tooling......Page 177
6.8.6.4 Making of the Part......Page 179
6.8.6.5 Methods of Applying Heat and Pressure......Page 184
6.8.6.6 Basic Processing Steps......Page 185
6.8.6.7 Advantages of the Resin Transfer Molding Process......Page 188
6.8.6.8 Limitations of the Resin Transfer Molding Process......Page 189
6.8.7 Structural Reaction Injection Molding (SRIM) Process......Page 190
6.8.7.2 Basic Raw Materials......Page 192
6.8.7.5 Methods of Applying Heat and Pressure......Page 193
6.8.8 Compression Molding Process......Page 194
6.8.8.1 Major Applications......Page 195
6.8.8.3 Making of the Part......Page 196
6.8.8.4 Mold Design......Page 201
6.8.8.6 Basic Processing Steps......Page 202
6.8.9.1 Major Applications......Page 203
6.8.9.4 Making of the Part......Page 204
6.8.9.6 Basic Processing Steps......Page 209
6.8.9.9 Common Problems with the Roll Wrapping Process......Page 211
6.8.10.2 Basic Raw Materials......Page 212
6.8.10.4 Making of the Part......Page 213
6.9 Manufacturing Processes for Thermoplastic Composites......Page 215
6.9.1 Thermoplastic Tape Winding......Page 216
6.9.1.3 Tooling......Page 217
6.9.1.4 Making of the Part......Page 218
6.9.1.5 Methods of Applying Heat and Pressure......Page 221
6.9.1.7 Limitations of the Thermoplastic Tape Winding Process......Page 222
6.9.2.3 Tooling......Page 223
6.9.2.5 Methods of Applying Heat and Pressure......Page 224
6.9.3.1 Major Applications......Page 225
6.9.3.2 Basic Raw Materials......Page 226
6.9.3.4 Part Fabrication......Page 228
6.9.3.6 Advantages of Compression Molding of GMT......Page 229
6.9.4.3 Tooling......Page 230
6.9.4.4 Making of the Part......Page 231
6.9.4.6 Basic Processing Steps......Page 232
6.9.5 Autoclave Processing......Page 233
6.9.5.4 Making the Part......Page 234
6.9.5.7 Advantages of Autoclave Processing......Page 236
6.9.6.1 Major Applications......Page 237
6.9.6.4 Making of the Part......Page 238
6.9.6.7 Limitations of the Diaphragm Forming Process......Page 240
6.9.7.3 Tooling......Page 241
6.9.7.4 Making of the Part......Page 242
6.9.7.5 Basic Processing Steps......Page 243
6.9.7.8 Limitations of the Injection Molding Process......Page 244
References......Page 245
Questions......Page 248
7.2 The Importance of Models in Composites Manufacturing......Page 249
7.3 Composites Processing......Page 250
7.4 Process Models for Selected Thermosets and Thermoplastics Processing......Page 251
7.4.1 Thermochemical Sub-Model......Page 253
7.4.1.1 Autoclave or Hot Press Process for Thermoset Composites......Page 255
7.4.1.2 Filament Winding of Thermoset Composites......Page 256
7.4.1.3 Tape Winding of Thermoplastic Composites......Page 257
7.4.2 Flow Sub-Model......Page 266
7.4.2.1 Compaction and Resin Flow during Autoclave Cure......Page 267
7.4.2.1.1 Resin Flow Normal to the Tool Plate......Page 268
7.4.2.1.2 Resin Flow Parallel to the Tool Plate......Page 271
7.4.2.1.3 Total Resin Flow......Page 274
7.4.2.2 Compaction and Resin Flow during Filament Winding......Page 277
7.4.2.3 Consolidation of Thermoplastic Composites during Autoclave or Hot Press Processing......Page 284
7.4.2.4 Consolidation and Bonding Models for Thermoplastic Tape Laying and Tape Winding......Page 289
Bonding Sub-Model......Page 293
7.4.3 Void Sub-Model......Page 294
7.4.4 Stress Sub-Model......Page 297
7.5 Process Model for RTM......Page 298
References......Page 299
Questions......Page 301
8.1 Introduction......Page 303
8.3 Bill of Materials......Page 304
8.4 Manufacturing Instructions......Page 308
8.4.2 Manufacturing Instructions for Making Flaps......Page 310
8.5 Capacity Planning......Page 318
8.5.1 Problem Definition......Page 319
8.5.3.1 Autoclave Capacity Analysis......Page 320
Questions......Page 322
9.1 Introduction......Page 323
9.2 Adhesive Bonding......Page 324
9.2.2 Basic Science of Adhesive Bonding......Page 327
9.2.2.2 Mechanical Theory......Page 328
9.2.3.1.1 Epoxy Adhesives......Page 329
9.2.3.2.1 Acrylic Adhesives......Page 330
9.2.3.3.4 Hot-Melt Adhesives......Page 331
9.2.4 Advantages of Adhesive Bonding over Mechanical Joints......Page 332
9.2.6 Adhesive Selection Guidelines......Page 333
9.2.7 Surface Preparation Guidelines......Page 334
9.2.7.2 Mechanical Abrasion......Page 335
9.2.8 Design Guidelines for Adhesive Bonding......Page 336
9.3 Mechanical Joints......Page 337
9.3.3 Failure Modes in a Bolted Joint......Page 339
9.3.4 Design Parameters for Bolted Joints......Page 340
9.3.5 Preparation for the Bolted Joint......Page 341
References......Page 342
Questions......Page 343
10.2 Objectives/Purposes of Machining......Page 344
10.3 Challenges during Machining of Composites......Page 345
10.4 Failure Mode during Machining of Composites......Page 346
10.5 Cutting Tools......Page 347
10.6.1 Cutting Operation......Page 349
10.6.1.1 Waterjet Cutting......Page 350
10.6.1.2 Laser Cutting......Page 352
10.6.2 Drilling Operation......Page 354
References......Page 356
Questions......Page 357
11.1 Introduction......Page 358
11.2 The Need for Cost Estimating......Page 359
11.4.1 Nonrecurring (Fixed) Costs......Page 361
11.4.2 Recurring (Variable) Costs......Page 362
11.5 Cost Estimating Techniques......Page 363
11.5.2 ACCEM Cost Model......Page 364
11.5.3 First-Order Model......Page 365
11.6 Cost Analysis for Composite Manufacturing Processes......Page 374
11.6.1 Hand Lay-up Technique for Aerospace Parts......Page 375
11.6.3 Compression Molded SMC Parts for Automotive Applications......Page 379
11.7 Learning Curve......Page 383
11.8 Guidelines for Minimization of Production Cost......Page 385
References......Page 386
Questions......Page 387
12.1 Introduction......Page 388
12.2.3 Recycling......Page 389
12.3 Recycling Methods......Page 390
12.3.2 Pyrolysis......Page 391
12.4 Existing Infrastructure for Recycling......Page 392
12.4.1 Automotive Recycling Infrastructure......Page 393
12.4.2 Aerospace Recycling Infrastructure......Page 394
References......Page 395
Questions......Page 396