Communication Research: Asking Questions, Finding Answers

Title
Contents
SECTION 1: RESEARCH BASICS
	CHAPTER 1 Introduction to Communication Research
		CHAPTER CHECKLIST
		WHAT IS RESEARCH?
			Your Relationship with Research
		SCHOLARLY RESEARCH
			Goals of Research
			Research and Theory
		COMMUNICATION AS A SOCIAL SCIENCE
			The Scientific Approach
			Characteristics of Science
			Methodological Extremes
		WHAT KINDS OF QUESTIONS DO COMMUNICATION SCHOLARS ASK?
			The Nature of the Questions
		SUMMARY
		KEY TERMS
		BOXED FEATURES AN ETHICAL ISSUE: Is Communication Public or Private?
		TRY THIS! Evaluating Communication Questions
	CHAPTER 2 The Research Process: Getting Started
		CHAPTER CHECKLIST
		THE RESEARCH PROCESS MODEL
		IDENTIFYING THE RESEARCH PROBLEM
			Formulating Research Ideas
			Turning Topics into Preliminary Questions
		USING LIBRARY AND DATABASE RESOURCES
			Scholarly Journals
			Books
			Online Resources
			Analyzing Your Resources
			Adjusting the Question
		USING AND ORGANIZING YOUR RESOURCES
			Tracking Others’ References
			Organizing What You Have Found
			Summarizing What You Have Found
		CONSIDERING THEORY IN RESEARCH
			Developing Theory
			Utility of Theory–Research Link
		SUMMARY
		KEY TERMS
		BOXED FEATURES TRY THIS! Developing Initial Questions to Guide the Research Process
		T RY THIS! Searching for Sources
		A N ETHICAL ISSUE: Using the Ideas of Others
		DESIGN CHECK: Evaluating the Literature You Found
		T RY THIS! Finding Theory in Journal Articles
	CHAPTER 3 Introduction to Quantitative Research
		CHAPTER CHECKLIST
		WHAT IS QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH?
			Examples of Quantitative Research
			Deductive Reasoning
			A Model for Conceptualizing Quantitative Research
		CREATING THE FOUNDATION FOR QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH
		RESEARCH HYPOTHESES FOR QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH
			Directional Hypotheses
			Nondirectional Hypotheses
			Assessing Hypotheses
			Null Hypotheses
			Research Traditions in the Use of Hypotheses
		RESEARCH QUESTIONS IN QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH
		TYPES OF VARIABLES
			Independent Variables
			Dependent Variables
			The Relationship Between Independent and Dependent Variables
		OPERATIONALIZING VARIABLES
		MAKING THE CASE FOR QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH
			Advantages of Quantitative Research
			Limitations of Quantitative Research
		ISSUES OF RELIABILITY AND VALIDITY
			Threats to Reliability and Validity
		SUMMARY
		KEY TERMS
		BOXED FEATURES AN ETHICAL ISSUE: Giving Your Children Permission to Participate in a Research Study
		DESIGN CHECK: What Is Sex? What Is Gender?
		T RY THIS! Identifying Independent and Dependent Variables
		T RY THIS! Operationalizing Variables
	CHAPTER 4 Introduction to Qualitative Research
		CHAPTER CHECKLIST
		WHAT IS QUALITATIVE RESEARCH?
			Examples of Qualitative Research
			Inductive Analysis
			A Model for Qualitative Research
			Issues of Credibility in Qualitative Research
		CONCEPTUALIZING RESEARCH QUESTIONS FOR QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
			Assessing Research Questions
		WHAT COUNTS AS DATA IN QUALITATIVE RESEARCH?
			Interpreting Meaning
			Level of Evidence
		MAKING THE CASE FOR QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
			Advantages of Qualitative Research
			Limitations of Qualitative Research
			Threats to Credibility in Qualitative Research
		COMPARING QUANTITATIVE AND QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
			Key Differences in Quantitative and Qualitative Research
			Key Similarities in Quantitative and Qualitative Research
			Which Do I Choose?
		SUMMARY
		KEY TERMS
		BOXED FEATURES TRY THIS! Identifying Contexts for Qualitative Research
		D ESIGN CHECK: W hat If Research Questions Are Not Presented? 6
		A N ETHICAL ISSUE: Is Anything Off-Limits?
	CHAPTER 5 Research Ethics
		CHAPTER CHECKLIST
		ETHICAL QUESTIONS IN PLANNING RESEARCH
			Institutional Review Board
			Informed Consent
				Informed Consent and Quantitative Research
					Informed Consent and Qualitative Research
		ETHICAL ISSUES IN CONDUCTING RESEARCH
			Intentional Deception
			Using Confederates
			Physical and Psychological Harm
			Upholding Anonymity and Confidentiality
			Videotaping and Audiotaping Participants
			Debriefing Participants
		ETHICAL ISSUES IN REPORTING RESEARCH
			Ensuring Accuracy
			Avoiding Plagiarism
			Protecting the Identities of Participants
		SUMMARY
		KEY TERMS
		BOXED FEATURES AN ETHICAL ISSUE: Professional Association Guidelines for Conducting Research
		AN ETHICAL ISSUE: Do Research Participants Have Any Ethical Responsibilities?
		DESIGN CHECK: Do You Need Informed Consent for Your Research Project?
		A N ETHICAL ISSUE: Would You Participate?
		DESIGN CHECK: Private or Public?
		T RY THIS! What Would You Include?
		A N ETHICAL ISSUE: Ethics in Proprietary Research
SECTION 2: QUANTITATIVE COMMUNICATION RESEARCH
	CHAPTER 6 Measurement
		CHAPTER CHECKLIST
		MEASUREMENT PRINCIPLES
		LEVELS OF MEASUREMENT IN COMMUNICATION RESEARCH
			Discrete Data
			Continuous Level Data
				Ordinal Data
				Interval Data
				Ratio Data
		ISSUES OF VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY
			Validity
				Face Validity
				Content Validity
				Criterion-Related Validity
				Construct Validity
			Reliability
				Internal Reliability
				Reliability Between Coders
				Test–Retest Reliability
				Split-Half Reliability
				Improving Reliability
			The Relationship Between Validity and Reliability
			Threats to Validity and Reliability
				Issues of Data Collection
				Issues of Sample Representativeness
				Alternative Explanations
		ISSUES OF DATA INTERPRETATION
		SUMMARY
		KEY TERMS
		BOXED FEATURES AN ETHICAL ISSUE: What Am I Willing to Reveal About Myself ?
		TRY THIS! Changing Levels of Measurement
		D ESIGN CHECK: Questioning Measurement Techniques
		D ESIGN CHECK: Will These Results Apply to Me?
	CHAPTER 7 Populations, Samples, and Sample Size
		CHAPTER CHECKLIST
		POPULATION AND SAMPLE
			Defining the Population
			Addressing Generalizability
			Probability Sampling
				Simple Random Sampling
				Systematic Sampling
				Stratified Random Sampling
				Cluster Sampling
			Nonprobability Sampling
				Convenience Sampling
				Volunteer Sampling
				Inclusion and Exclusion Criteria
				Snowball Sampling
				Purposive Sampling
				Quota Sampling
			Sample Size
			A Final Word on Sampling
		SUMMARY
		KEY TERMS
		BOXED FEATURES AN ETHICAL ISSUE: Participant Selection Can Make a Difference
		DESIGN CHECK: Are Students Too Convenient?
		D ESIGN CHECK: Justifying Nonprobability Sampling
		T RY THIS! Identifying Populations, Generating Samples
		A N ETHICAL ISSUE: Selected, But Not Required to Participate
	CHAPTER 8 Quantitative Research Designs
		CHAPTER CHECKLIST
		THE EXPERIMENTAL FRAMEWORK
			The Classical Experiment
				Random Assignment of Participants
				Creating Treatment and Control Groups
				Manipulation Checks
			Types of Experimental Design
				Posttest Only
				Pretest–Posttest
				Factorial Design
			Longitudinal Designs
			Strengths of Experimentation
			Limitations of Experimentation
		QUASI-EXPERIMENTS
			Field Experiments
			Strengths and Limitations of Quasi-Experimental Research Designs
		DESCRIPTIVE DESIGNS
			Strengths and Limitations of Descriptive Research Designs
		RESEARCHER EFFECTS AND PROCEDURAL BIAS
		COMPARING RESEARCH DESIGNS
		SUMMARY
		KEY TERMS
		BOXED FEATURES AN ETHICAL ISSUE: Would You Ask Participants To
		TRY THIS! Designing an Experiment
		D ESIGN CHECK: Is One Study Ever Enough?
	CHAPTER 9 Surveys and Questionnaires
		CHAPTER CHECKLIST
		WHAT IS A SURVEY?
			Types of Surveys
				Online Surveys
				Comparing Survey Types
		DESIGNING A SURVEY
			Evaluating Existing Questionnaires or Surveys
			Writing Your Own Questionnaire
			Designing Survey Items
				Closed Questions
				Open Questions
				Choosing Between Open and Closed Questions
		DESIGNING THE FLOW OF THE SURVEY
			How the Survey Looks
		PRETESTING THE SURVEY OR QUESTIONNAIRE
		SAMPLING ISSUES FOR SURVEYS
			Response Rate
		SURVEY RELIABILITY AND VALIDITY
		ANALYZING AND REPORTING SURVEY DATA
		SUMMARY
		KEY TERMS
		BOXED FEATURES DESIGN CHECK: Are All Polls the Same?
		T RY THIS! Survey Design
		D ESIGN CHECK: Racial and Ethnic Group Identification
		T RY THIS! H ow Different Are Usually, Sometimes, and Seldom?
		T RY THIS! Does This Questionnaire Need Modification?
		A N ETHICAL ISSUE: Would You Participate?
	CHAPTER 10 Descriptive Statistics, Significance Levels, and Hypothesis Testing
		CHAPTER CHECKLIST
		NUMBERS INTO STATISTICS
		NORMAL CURVE
			Skewed Distributions
			Distributions of Data
		DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS
			Number of Cases
			Measures of Central Tendency
				Mean
				Median
				Mode
			Measures of Dispersion
				Range
				Standard Deviation
		APPLICATION OF DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS
			Frequencies
			Percentages
		CRUNCHING THE NUMBERS: CALCULATOR OR COMPUTER?
		SIGNIFICANCE LEVELS
		HYPOTHESIS TESTING
		A FINAL WORD
		SUMMARY
		KEY TERMS
		BOXED FEATURES TRY THIS! Are the Data Normal or Skewed?
		A N ETHICAL ISSUE: Mistakes in Calculations
		DESIGN CHECK: Describing Variables
	CHAPTER 11 Testing for Differences
		CHAPTER CHECKLIST
		INFERENTIAL STATISTICS
			Alternative and Null Hypotheses
			Degrees of Freedom
			Four Analytical Steps
		CHI-SQUARE
			One-Dimensional Chi-Square
			Contingency Analysis
			Limitations of Chi-Square
		THE t -TEST
			Common Forms of t -Test
			Two-Tailed t -Test
			One-Tailed t -Test
			Limitations of the t -Test
		ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE
			ANOVA Basics
			One-Way ANOVA
			Two-Way ANOVA
			Factorial ANOVA
			Limitations of ANOVA
		ASKING FOR STATISTICAL HELP
		SUMMARY
		KEY TERMS
		BOXED FEATURES DESIGN CHECK: Interpreting Chi-Squares
		D ESIGN CHECK: Interpreting t -Tests
		A N ETHICAL ISSUE: Are Two Categories Fully Representative?
		TRY THIS! Should Differences Be Significant or Practical?
		D ESIGN CHECK: Interpreting F
	CHAPTER 12 Testing for Relationships
		CHAPTER CHECKLIST
		BASIC ASSUMPTIONS
			Alternative and Null Hypotheses
			Degrees of Freedom
			Four Analytical Steps
		CORRELATION
			Interpreting the Coefficient
				Amount of Shared Variance
				Plotting the Data
			Examples of Correlation
			Other Forms of Correlation
			Limitations of Correlation
		REGRESSION
			Linear Regression
			Multiple Regression
				Interpreting Multiple Regression
			Regression Examples
				Other Forms of Regression
			Limitations of Regression
		STRUCTURAL EQUATION MODELING
			SEM Example
			Other Forms of SEM
		CAUTIONS IN USING STATISTICS
		SUMMARY
		KEY TERMS
		BOXED FEATURES DESIGN CHECK: Paying Attention to Details
		D ESIGN CHECK: Interpreting Correlations
		D ESIGN CHECK: Interpreting Multiple Regression
		T RY THIS! Identifying Independent Variables for Multiple Regression
	CHAPTER 13 Quantitative Analysis of Text
		CHAPTER CHECKLIST
		CONTENT ANALYSIS
			What Content Can Be Analyzed?
			The Content Analysis Process
				Selecting What to Code
				Developing Content Categories
				Units of Analysis
				Training Coders
				Coding Reliability
				Validity
			Interpreting the Coding Results
			Computers and Content Analysis
			Strengths of Content Analysis Research
			Limitations of Content Analysis Research
		INTERACTION ANALYSIS
			Gathering and Preparing the Interaction for Coding
			Coding the Interaction
			Analyzing and Interpreting the Coding
			Strengths of Interaction Analysis
			Limitations of Interaction Analysis
		DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
		SUMMARY
		KEY TERMS
		BOXED FEATURES DESIGN CHECK: Content Analyzing Media Messages
		T RY THIS! Identifying Themes of Freshman Socialization
		D ESIGN CHECK: H ow Did the Researcher Perform the Content Analysis? 2
		A N ETHICAL ISSUE: Taking Content Out of Context
SECTION 3: QUALITATIVE COMMUNICATION RESEARCH
	CHAPTER 14 Designing Qualitative Research
		CHAPTER CHECKLIST
		RESEARCHER SKILLS FOR QUALITATIVE METHODOLOGIES
		THE RESEARCHER’S ROLE IN QUALITATIVE METHODOLOGIES
			Forms of Participant Observation
				Complete Participant
				Participant as Observer
				Observer as Participant
				Complete Observer
				Moving Between Researcher Role
		IDENTIFYING THE RESEARCH FOCUS
			Consulting the Literature
			Concept Map
			Research Questions and Objectives
		SAMPLING IN QUALITATIVE DESIGNS
			Special Considerations for Sampling in Qualitative Research
		GAINING ACCESS
			Becoming Familiar with People and Places
			Developing Trust
				Developing Rapport
				Locating Key Informants
			Stumbling Onto Something Interesting
		DESIGNING A QUALITATIVE RESEARCH PROJECT
			What Constitutes Data in Qualitative Research?
			Your Impact as a Researcher
		FINALIZING THE RESEARCH DESIGN
		SUMMARY
		KEY TERMS
		BOXED FEATURES AN ETHICAL ISSUE: One Role? Or Two?
		TRY THIS! Assuming Researcher Roles
		D ESIGN CHECK: Why Was the Researcher There?
		D ESIGN CHECK: Are the Data Credible?
	CHAPTER 15 Qualitative Methods of Data Collection
		CHAPTER CHECKLIST
		COLLECTING QUALITATIVE DATA
			Observation Strategies
				The Seamless Container
				Ask Questions to Aid Observation
			Taking Notes
				Transcribing Notes
				What if You Cannot Take Notes
			Describing and Analyzing
		FIELD INTERVIEWING
			Electronic Interviewing
			The Interview Process
				Conceptualizing the Interview Study
				Designing the Interview
			Conducting the Interview
				Asking Questions
				Listening
				Concluding the Interview
				Transcribing the Interview
			Strengths and Limitations of Interview Research
		FOCUS GROUPS
			Planning Focus Group Research
				The Focus Group Outline
				Selecting Paticipants
			Conducting Focus Group Research
				Guiding and Maintaining the Conversation
			Data from Focus Group Discussions
			Focus Group Strengths and Limitations
		COLLECTING NARRATIVES
			Sources for Stories
			Strengths and Limitations of Narrative Research
		ETHNOGRAPHY
			Entering the Scene
			Strengths and Limitations of Ethnographic Research
		SUMMARY
		KEY TERMS
		BOXED FEATURES TRY THIS! Your Classroom as a Seamless Container
		D ESIGN CHECK: Where Did the Interviews Occur?
		T RY THIS! Motivating Attendance at Focus Groups
		A N ETHICAL ISSUE: Research or Selling?
		DESIGN CHECK The Difference Between the Research Question and Asking Questions
		D ESIGN CHECK: Reading Ethnography
	CHAPTER 16 Analyzing Qualitative Data
		CHAPTER CHECKLIST
		AN OVERVIEW
		CHOOSING AN ANALYTIC METHOD
		THE PROCESS OF ANALYSIS
			Analytical Memos
			Diagramming the Data
			Coding and Analyzing with Software
			Coding and Categorizing Data
		GROUNDED THEORY
		THEMATIC ANALYSIS
		THE PROCESS OF INTERPRETATION
			Evaluating Interpretation
				Participant Quotes
				Credibility
				Triangulation
		A FINAL WORD
		SUMMARY
		KEY TERMS
		BOXED FEATURES DESIGN CHECK: How Are Participant Quotes Used?
SECTION 4: READING AND WRITING RESEARCH REPORTS
	CHAPTER 17 Reading and Writing the Quantitative Research Report
		CHAPTER CHECKLIST
		THE LITERATURE REVIEW
			The Problem Statement
			Types of Material to Include in the Literature Review
			Organizing the Literature Review
			Presenting the Research Questions and Hypotheses
		THE METHODS SECTION
			Describing Participants
			Describing the Research Procedure
			Describing the Variables
		THE RESULTS SECTION
			Using Tables and Graphs
		THE DISCUSSION SECTION
			Developing Interpretations from Results
			Manner of Presentation
			Presenting the Limitations
			Recommending Future Research
		FINISHING THE QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH REPORT
			Title
			Title Page
			Abstract
			References
		USING APA STYLE
			Citing Others’ Work
			Creating the Reference List
		ISSUES IN WRITING
			The Revision Process
		SUMMARY
		KEY TERMS
		BOXED FEATURES DESIGN CHECK: Do You Have the Basic Information?
		A N ETHICAL ISSUE: Dealing with Unexpected Results
		TRY THIS! How to Read a Research Report
		T RY THIS! S ubmit Your Research Paper to a Communication Convention 3
	CHAPTER 18 Reading and Writing the Qualitative Research Report
		CHAPTER CHECKLIST
		REPRESENTING QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
			Beginning the Research Report
			The Literature Review
		WRITING ABOUT THE METHOD
			Revealing the Identity of Participants
		PRESENTING THE DATA
			Authorial Voice
			Adopting a Writing Style
				The Writing Style of the Realist
				The Writing Style of the Confessional
				The Writing Style of the Impressionist
				The Writing Style of the Critical Scholar
		FINDINGS AND INTERPRETATION
			Balancing Description and Analysis
			Identifying and Presenting Organizing Patterns
			Using Participants’ Quoted Material
		DRAWING AND SUPPORTING CONCLUSIONS
			Revisiting Your Analysis
		FINISHING THE QUALITATIVE RESEARCH REPORT
			Title
				Abstract
			Using the APA Style Manual
		SUMMARY
		KEY TERMS
		BOXED FEATURES AN ETHICAL ISSUE: Creating Something from Nothing
		DESIGN CHECK: Who Did What? How? When?
		T RY THIS! Describe, Then Analyze
		D ESIGN CHECK: Letting Participants Speak
APPENDIXES A Personal Report of Communication Apprehension
B Formulas and Steps for Statistical Calculations
C Random Numbers Table
D Sample Protocol for Experimental Study
Glossary
References
Author Index
Subject Index