COLON POLYPS AND COLORECTAL CANCER

Preface
Contents
Contributors
1: Anatomy of the Colon, Rectum, and Anus
	Embryology of the Colon and Anorectic Area
	Colon, Rectum, and Pelvic Floor Anatomy
		Transverse Colon
		Descending Colon, Sigmoid Colon
		The Rectosigmoid Junction Has Six Anatomical Features
	Characteristics Distinguishing the Colon from the Small Intestine
		Colon Wall Is Composed of Three Layers
	Arterial Supply, Venous and Lymphatic Drainage
	SMA and IMA Have Three Main Connections
	The Lymphatics of the Colon
	Innervation of the Colon, Rectum and Anal Canal
	Ten Golden Rules of Good Colon Surgery
	Histology of the Colon
	References
2: Anesthesia in Colonoscopy
	Introduction
	Pre-anesthesia Evaluation Before Colonoscopy
	ASA Classification Used for the Evaluation of the Sedation Risk [11]
		ASA Classification
	The Tests Required Before Anesthesia
		The Cardiovascular System
		The Pulmonary System
		The Airway Evaluation
		Predictors of Difficult Mask Ventilation and Difficult Intubation
	Preoperative Fasting
	Maintenance of Anesthesia
	Choosing the Suitable Technique
	Monitoring
		ECG
		Pulse Oximeter
		Capnography
		Non-invasive Blood Pressure
		Supplemental Oxygen
	Airway Maintenance
	Aspiration Risk
	Patient Position
	Choice of the Anesthetic
	Anesthesia-Related Complications
	Informed Consent
	Post-anesthesia Care
	Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation
		Basic Life Support
		Advanced Life Support
		Defibrillation
	References
3: Colonoscopy
	Description of Colonoscopy
	Indications and Contraindications for Colonoscopy
	Colonoscopy Indications
		Colonoscopy in Iron Deficiency Anemia
		Colonoscopy in Lower Gastrointestinal System Bleedings
	Colonic Diverticular Disease
	Vascular Ectasia (Angiodysplasia)
	Bleedings Due to Chronic Ischemia
	Lower Gastrointestinal System Bleeding Due to Inflammatory Bowel Diseases
	Bleeding Due to Meckel’s Diverticulum
	Lower Gastrointestinal Bleeding Due to Neoplasms
	Lower Gastrointestinal System Bleedings Due to Anorectal Diseases
	Lower Gastrointestinal System Bleeding Due to Infectious Colitis or Enteritis
	Lower Gastrointestinal System Bleeding in Radiation Colitis
	Colonoscopy in Bleeding Due to Idiopathic Ileocolonic Varices
	Colonoscopy in Lower Gastrointestinal Bleeding Due to Trauma
	Colonoscopy in Lower Gastrointestinal Bleeding After Polypectomy
	Colonoscopy in Lower Gastrointestinal Bleeding Due to Hematological Diseases
	Colonoscopy Preparation for Lower Gastrointestinal Bleeding
	Colonoscopy in Lower Abdominal Symptoms
	Hemorrhoids
	Anal Fistula
	Chronic Constipation
	Is Colonoscopy Necessary Before Closing Temporary Ileostomy?
	Change in Bowel Habits
		Uncomplicated Diarrhea
		Colorectal Cancer Screening in Patients Diagnosed with Inflammatory Bowel Disease
		For Follow-Up After Polypectomy
		Colorectal Cancer Screening
		Kitlesel Lezyonlarda
			Intraabdominal Masses
		Other Indications for Colonoscopy
	Contraindications in Colonoscopy
		Absolute Contraindications
			Colon Perforation
			Acute Peritonitis
	Complete or High-Grade Intestinal Obstruction
		Patient’s Refusal to the Procedure
		Toxic Megacolon
	Fulminant Colitis
		Patients Who Have Consent for Colonoscopy and Cannot Cooperate or Cannot Be Sedated Adequately
	Relative Contraindications
		Bleeding Disorders, Thrombocytopenia, Platelet Dysfunction
		Neutropenia
		Previous Bowel Surgery
	Patients at Risk of Intestinal Perforation (Ehler Danlos Syndrome, Marfan Syndrome)
		Ehler Danlos Syndrome (EDS)
		Marfan Syndrome
		Acute Diverticulitis
		Previous Cardiac Infarction and Pulmonary Embolism
		Presence of Recent Surgeries
		Very Large Abdominal Aortic Aneurysm
		Pregnancy (Second or Third Trimester)
		Hemodynamic Instability
	Colonoscopy Instruments and Colonoscopy Room Descriptions
		Features of the Colonoscopy Unit
	Colonoscopy Technique: Position Maneuvers, Colonoscopy Technique
	Robotic Colonoscopy
	Colonoscopy Complications
		Perforation
		Splenic Trauma
		Bacteremia
		Exitus
		Acute Diverticulitis
		Severe Abdominal Distention
		Bleeding
		Missed Adenoma
		Incomplete Removal of Neoplasia
		Other Complications
	References
4: Colon Polyps, Colonoscopy, and Colorectal Cancer in Pregnancy
	Backgrounds
	Risk Factors and Prevention
	Colorectal Cancer Diagnosis in Pregnancy
	Low Gastrointestinal Endoscopy During Pregnancy
	Pre-endoscopic Evaluation
	What Should the Obstetrician Do Before Endoscopic Evaluation During Pregnancy?
	Precautions During Endoscopy in Pregnant Patient
	Colorectal Cancer Treatment During Pregnancy
	References
5: Colonoscopy and Infectious Diseases
	Endoscopically Induced Infection: Risk factors [1]
	Infections Related to Endoscopic Intervention
	Microorganisms Commonly Infected by Endoscopes
	Disinfection of Endoscope
		Disinfection Procedures
	Antibiotic Prophylaxis in Gastrointestinal Endoscopy
		IE Prophylaxis According to the Type of Risky Intervention in Patients with the Highest Risk
	Infection Control in Endoscopy Units
	References
6: Information on Colon Polyps in Terms of Gastroenterology
	Colon Polyps
	Neoplastic Polyps
		Adenomatoid Polyps
			Epidemiology and Risk Factors
			Cases Associated with Adenomatous Polyps
				Uretherosigmoidostomy
				Acromegaly
				Streptococcus bovis Bacteremia and JC (John Cunningham) Virus
				Cholecystectomy
			Anatomic Distribution
				Clinical and Natural Course
			Pathology
				Endoscopic and Histological Properties
				Histological Appearance
			Classification of Adenomas According to the Size
			Pathogenesis
	Adenoma: Carcinoma Hypothesis
		Epidemiological Evidence
		Clinicopathological Evidence
		Molecular Genetic Evidence
		Diagnosis
			Fecal Immunochemical Test (FIT)
			Guaiac-Based Fecal Occult Blood Test (gFOBT)
			Multitarget Stool DNA Tests with Fecal Immunochemical Testing
			Sigmoidoscopy
			Colonoscopy
			Colon Capsule Endoscopy
			Barium Enema
			Computed Tomography Colonography (CTC)
	Treatment
		Kudo Classification
			Sessile or Flat Polyps
			Peduncle Polyps
				Post-polypectomy Management
				Serrated Polyps
				Cancer Risk
				Management
					Serrated Polyposis Syndrome
	Non-neoplastic Polyps
		Juvenile Polyps
			Peutz-Jeghers Polyps
			Inflammatory Pseudopolyps
			Mucosal Polyps
			Submucosal Lesions
	References
7: Role of Imaging in Colorectal Cancers
	General Consideration
		Techniques Used for Early Detection
		Criteria to Be Included in the Screening Programs
	Imaging in Colorectal Cancer
		Metastatic Spread
		Restaging: Therapeutic Response Evaluation
		Follow-Up of Colorectal Cancer
	Imaging Modalities
		Ultrasonography
		Transrectal Ultrasonography (Endorectal Ultrasound)
		Computed Tomography
	CT Colonography (CTC)
		Magnetic Resonance Imaging
		Positron Emission Tomography (PET-CT)
		Imaging-Guided Therapeutic Procedures
			Radiofrequency Ablation and Microwave Ablation
			Transarterial Chemoembolization
			Selective Internal Radiation Therapy
	Conclusion
	References
8: Surgical Management of Colorectal Polyps
	Colorectal Polyps
	Cold Forceps Biopsy/Cold Snare Polypectomy
	Hot Biopsy Forceps
	Hot Snare Polypectomy (HSP)
	Endoscopic Mucosal Resection (EMR)/Endoscopic Submucosal Dissection (ESD)
	Surgery in Colorectal Polyps/Difficult Polyps
	Laparoscopic Approach in Colorectal Polyps
	Combined Endoscopic-Laparoscopic Surgery
	Transanal Endoscopic Microsurgery (TEM)
	References
9: Colon Polyps and Their Pathologic Characteristics
	Introduction
	Inflammatory Polyps
		Usual Type Inflammatory Polyp (NOS, “Pseudopolyp”)
			Pathologic Features
			Treatment
		Prolapse-Type Inflammatory Polyp
		Inflammatory Cap Polyp (Cap Polyposis)
			Clinical Findings
			Histopathological Features
			Treatment
		Inflammatory Cloacogenic Polyp
		Colitis Cystica Profunda/Polyposa
			Macroscopic Findings
			Histopathological Findings
			Treatment
		Diverticular Disease-Associated Polyp
		Inflammatory Myoglandular Polyp
			Histopathological Findings
	Hamartomatous Polyps
		Juvenile Polyps and Juvenile Polyposis
			Molecular Characteristics
			Macroscopic Features
			Histopathological Features
			Treatment and Follow-Up
		Peutz-Jegher’s Syndrome
			Pathologic Features
		PTEN Hamartoma Tumor Syndrome
			Cowden Syndrome
				Clinical Features
				Pathologic Features
			Cronkhite-Canada Syndrome
				Clinical Features
				Pathologic Features
				Natural History
	Epithelial Polyps
		Hyperplastic and Serrated Lesions and Polyps
		Nondysplastic Serrated Lesions and Polyps
			Hyperplastic Polyps
				Clinical Features
				Pathogenesis
				Pathologic Features
				Differential Diagnosis
				Treatment
			Sessile Serrated Lesions
				Clinical Features
				Molecular Properties
				Pathologic Features
		Dysplastic Serrated Lesions and Polyps
			Sessile Serrated Lesions with Dysplasia (SSLD)
				Pathologic Features
				Molecular Features
				Treatment
			Traditional Serrated Adenoma (TSA)
				Clinical and Epidemiological Features
				Pathogenesis
				Pathologic Features
				Treatment
			Unclassifiable Serrated Adenoma
				Conventional Adenoma with Serrated Features
			Serrated Polyposis Syndrome
			Conventional Colorectal Adenoma (CCA)
				Pathologic Features
			Advanced Adenoma
			Adenoma: Natural History and Treatment
			Adenoma with Epithelial Misplacement (Pseudoinvasion)
				Treatment
			Flat Adenomas
			Malignant Epithelial Polyp
				Pathologic Features, Natural History, and Treatment
			Adenomatous Polyposis Syndrome
				Familial Adenomatous Polyposis (FAP)
				Gardner Syndrome
				Turcot Syndrome
				Attenuated Familial Adenomatous Polyposis (AFAP)
				MYH-Associated Polyposis
				Hereditary Nonpolyposis Colorectal Cancer Syndrome (Lynch Syndrome)
	Lymphoid Polyps
	Mesenchymal Polyps
		Fibroblastic Polyp
			Histopathological Features
		Inflammatory Fibroid Polyp
		Other Colorectal Mesenchymal Polyps
	References
10: Trends, Risk Factors, and Preventions in Colorectal Cancer
	Risk Increasing Factors for Colorectal Cancer
		Family History
		Hereditary Syndromes
		Gender
		Previous Treatment for Certain Cancers
		Night Shift Work
		Presence of Multiple Primary Cancers
		Age
		Inflammatory Bowel Diseases (Crohn, Colitis Ulcerosa)
		Diabetes Mellitus
		Smoking
		Alcohol Use
		Red Meat and Processed Meat Consumption
		Gallbladder Diseases
		Presence of Adenomatous Polyp
		Obesity
		Metabolic Syndrome
		Infections
		Organ Transplantation
		Nonalcoholic Steatohepatitis
		Gallbladder Polyps
	Risk-Reducing Factors for Colorectal Cancer
		Acetylsalicylic Acid
		Statins
		Bisphosphonates
		Calcium and Vitamin D
		Physical Activity
		Fish Consumption
		Serum Cholesterol Level
		Dietary Fiber
		Postmenopausal Hormone Therapy
		Screening Program
		Green Tea Consumption
	Prevention of Colorectal Cancer
		Guaiac Test
		Fecal Immunochemical Test (FIT)
		Exfoliated DNA Test
	References
11: Anesthesia Practices in Colorectal Cancer Surgery
	The Effect of Anesthetic Technique, Anesthetic Agents, and Preoperative Anesthesia Practices on Prognosis in Colorectal Cancer Surgery
	Anesthesia Practices in Colorectal Cancer Surgery
	Immune System
	Anesthetic Technique
	Anesthetic Agents
		Inhalation Anesthetics
		Intravenous Anesthetics
			Propofol
			Dexmedetomidine
			Etomidate
			Ketamine
			Benzodiazepines
			Opioids
		Nonsteroidal Anti-inflammatory Drugs (NSAIDs)
		Local Anesthetics
		β blockers
	Peroperative Anesthetic Practices
		Blood Transfusion
		Hypothermia
		Postoperative Analgesia
	In Conclusion
	References
12: Cardiac Assessment in Noncardiac Surgery
	Preoperative Assessment
		Cardiac Response to Surgical Stress
		Surgical Emergency
		Surgery-Specific Risk
		Functional Capacity
		Risk Indices
		Biomarkers
		Noninvasive Tests for Heart Disease
			ECG
			Echocardiography
			Noninvasive Imaging in Ischemic Heart Disease
	Perioperative Cardiac Risk-Reducing Strategies
		Coronary Revascularization Prior to Noncardiac Surgery
		Pharmacological Therapy
			Acetylsalicylic Acid
			Dual Antiplatelet Therapy
			Vitamin K Antagonists (VKA)
			Direct Oral Anticoagulants (DOAC)
		Management of Specific Conditions
			Heart Failure
			Hypertension
			Aortic Stenosis
			Arrhythmias
			Permanent Pacemaker and Presence of ICD
	Extended Thromboprophylaxis Following Abdominal or Pelvic Surgery
	References
13: Surgical Treatment Approaches to the Colorectal Cancers in the Light of the Current Guidelines
	Treatment Approach to the Malignant Polyps
	Surgical Treatment Approaches to the Colon Cancers
	Surgical Techniques in Colon Cancer
		Right Hemicolectomy
		Extended Right Hemicolectomy
		Transverse Colectomy
		Left Hemicolectomy
		Extended Left Hemicolectomy
		Sigmoid Colectomy
		Subtotal and Total Colectomy
	Minimal Invasive Surgery
	Emergency Colon Surgery
	Surgery in Metastatic Colon Tumors
	Surgical Treatment Approaches to the Rectum Cancers
	Surgical Techniques in Rectal Cancer Operations
		Local Transanal Excision
		Abdominoperineal Resection (APR)
		Anterior/Low Anterior Resection
		Sphincter Sparing Surgery-Coloanal Anastomosis
	Minimally Invasive Surgery
	Tumor-Related Emergencies
	Surgical Treatment of the Unresectable Rectal Cancers
	References
14: Appendix Tumors
	Neuroendocrine Tumors of the Appendix
		Clinical Overview
		Diagnosis
		Main Prognostic Features of NETs of the Appendix
			Size
			Location
			Mesoappendix
		Surgery
		Follow-Up
	Epithelial Neoplasms of the Appendix
		Introduction
		Adenoma
		Serrated Polyps
		Low-Grade Appendiceal Mucinous Neoplasm (LAMN)
		High-Grade Appendiceal Mucinous Neoplasms (HAMN)
	Adenocarcinoma of the Appendix
		Mucinous Adenocarcinoma
		Colonic-Type Adenocarcinoma
		Goblet Cell Adenocarcinoma
	Pseudomyxoma Peritonei
	Rare Neoplasms of Appendix
		Appendiceal Lymphoma
		Metastases
		Mesenchymal Tumors (GISTs, Desmoid, Leiomyoma, Leiomyosarcoma)
			Gastrointestinal Stromal Tumors (GISTs)
			Desmoid
			Leiomyoma
			Leiomyosarcoma
		Noncarcinoid NETs (Ganglioneuroma, Pheochromocytoma, Paraganglioma)
			Ganglioneuroma
			Pheochromocytoma
			Paraganglioma
		Sarcomas (HIV-Associated Kaposi Sarcoma, Desmoplastic Small Round Cell Tumor)
			HIV-Associated Kaposi Sarcoma
			Desmoplastic Small Round Cell Tumor
		Neuroectodermal and Nerve Sheath Tumors (Schwannoma, Neurofibroma)
			Schwannoma
			Neurofibroma
	References
15: Surgical Treatment of Colon Cancer (Open and Laparoscopic Surgery)
	Preoperative Assessment
	Bowel Preparation
	Thromboprophylaxis
	Main Principles
		Resection Margins
		Lymphadenectomy
	Open vs. Laparoscopic Colectomy
		Surgical Technique
	Right Hemicolectomy
		Surgical Technique
		Open Right Hemicolectomy
		Laparoscopic Right Hemicolectomy
	Transverse Colectomy
	Left Hemicolectomy
		Open Surgery Technique
		Laparoscopic Left Hemicolectomy
	Sigmoid Resection
		Open Sigmoid Resection
		Laparoscopic Sigmoid Resection
	Total Colectomy
	Comparison of Short-Term Results
	Comparison of Long-Term Results
	References
16: Open and Laparoscopic Surgery in Rectal Cancers
	Anatomy
	Preoperative Staging
	Oncologic Resection Principles
	Preoperative Preparation
	Low Anterior Resection (Open)
		Postoperative Care
		Sphincter-Preserving Resections
		Surgical Technique
	Laparoscopic Low Anterior Resection
		Preoperative Preparation
		Patient Position and Trocar Insertion Sites
		Postoperative Care
		Complications
	Local Excision
	Who Requires a Diverting Stoma in Rectal Cancer Surgery?
	Do Diverting Stomas Reduce the Rate of Anastomotic Leak?
	Which Type of Diversion Should We Use?
	References
17: Robotic Surgery in Colorectal Cancers
	Robotic Surgery in Colorectal Cancer from Past to Future
		History of Robotic Surgery
		Advantages of Robotic Surgery
		Disadvantages of Robotic Surgery
	Robotic Surgery Technique
		Right Hemicolectomy
			Should İntracorporeal or Extracorporeal Anastomosis Be Performed?
		Transverse Colectomy
		Left Hemicolectomy and Rectal Resection
		Taking the Specimen Out of the Abdomen
			Which İncision Should Be Performed to Minimize the Risk of Hernia?
		Anastomosis
			Does İndocyanine Green (Firefly) İncrease Anastomosis Safety?
			Is Laparoscopic Surgical Experience Necessary?
			Does Robotic Surgery Süperior to Effect Voiding and Sexual Function?
	Complications of Robotic Surgery
	Conclusion
	References
18: Management of Colorectal Surgery Complications
	Complications Due to Anastomosis
		Anastomotic Leakage
	Bleeding in the Anastomosis Line
		Anastomotic Stenosis
	Surgical Site Infection
	Early Small Bowel Obstruction After Surgery
	Abdominal Wound Dehiscence
		Splenic Injury
	Presacral Bleeding
	Thromboembolism
	Ureter, Bladder, and Urethral Injury
		Rectovaginal Fistula
		Fecal Incontinence
	Low Anterior Resection Syndrome
	Stoma Complications
	References
19: Intestinal Ostomies
	Introduction
	Stoma Planning and Placement
	Ileostomy
		Ileostomy Indications
	Physiology of Ileostomy
	End Ileostomy
	Loop Ileostomy
		Minimally Invasive Ileostomy
	Ghost Ileostomy
	Continent Ileostomy
	Colostomy
		Indications of Colostomy
		Colostomy Physiology
		End Colostomy
		Loop Colostomy
		Minimally Invasive Colostomy
		Turnbull Blowhole Colostomy
	Ostomy Closure
		Timing of Ostomy Closure
		Technical Aspects
	Ostomy-Related Complications
		Peristomal Skin Complications
		Mucocutaneous Separation
		Stomal Necrosis
		Stomal Stenosis
		Stomal Retraction
		Stomal Bleeding
		High Output Enterostomy
		Stomal Prolapse
		Parastomal Hernia
	References
20: Cytoreductive Surgery with Hyperthermic Intraperitoneal Chemotherapy (HIPEC) in the Treatment of Colorectal Peritoneal Carcinomatosis
	Introduction
	Pathophysiology of Colorectal Peritoneal Carcinomatosis
	Patient Selection and Prognostic Scoring
	Cytoreductive Surgery
	Hyperthermic Intraperitoneal Chemotherapy (HIPEC)
	Pressurized Intraperitoneal Aerosol Chemotherapy (PIPAC)
	The Role of CRS with HIPEC in the Treatment and Results
	References
21: Follow-Up of Patients with Surgical Colorectal Cancer Resection
	Follow-Up in Stage 1 Patients
	Follow-Up in Stage 4 Patients
	Follow-Up in Stage 2–3 Patients
	History and Physical Examination
	Carcinoembryonic Antigen (CEA)
	Colonoscopy
	Proctosigmoidoscopy
	Computed Tomography (CT)
		Pet-Ct
	References
22: Infectious Disease Approach to Colorectal Surgery
	Introduction
	Fever in Patients After Colorectal Surgery
		Noninfectious Causes
			Atelectasis
			Pulmonary Embolism
			Adrenal Insufficiency
			Malignant Hyperthermia
			Alcohol Withdrawal
			Others
		Infectious Causes
			Surgical Side Infections (SSI)
				Superficial Incision (Involving Only the Skin or Subcutaneous Tissue of the Incision)
				Deep Incisional (Fascia and/or Muscular Layers)
				Organ/Space Infections
			Microbial Etiology of SSI
				Risk Factors for SSI After Colorectal Surgery
			Other Sources of Infection After Colorectal Surgery
				Urinary Tract Infection (UTI)
				Pneumonia
				Catheter-Related Bloodstream Infections
				Infected Prosthetics
				Clostridium difficile Infections
				Anastomotic Leak
				Others
	Diagnose and Management
	Treatment
	Prevention
		Preoperative Preparation
			Preoperative General Recommendations
			Preoperative Antibiotic Prophylaxis
			Mechanical Bowel Preparation (MBP) and the Use of Oral Antibiotics
				Probiotics Therapy
		Intraoperative Measures
		Postoperative Measures
	References
23: Pathologic Features of Colorectal Carcinomas
	Classification of Tumours of the Colon and Rectum
		Pathogenesis
		Macroscopic Features
		Histopathology
		Adenocarcinoma, Not Otherwise Specified (NOS)
		Mucinous Adenocarcinoma
		Signet Ring Cell Carcinoma
		Medullary Carcinoma
		Serrated Adenocarcinoma
		Micropapillary Adenocarcinoma
		Adenoma-Like Adenocarcinoma
		Adenosquamous Carcinoma
		Carcinomas with Sarcomatoid Components
		Undifferentiated Carcinoma
		Important Prognostic Factors
			Lymphatic Invasion
		Intramural and Extramural Vascular Invasion
		Perineural Invasion
		Tumour Budding
		Immune Response
		Resection Margins
			Response to Therapy
			Diagnostic Molecular Pathology
			Genomic Classification
			Transcriptomic Profiling
			Staging (TNM)
			Prognosis
		Category I Biomarkers
			Ras Genes
			BRAF Gene
			Microsatellite Instability
		TNM Staging of Cancers of the Colon and Rectum
		Category 2 Biomarkers
		Category 3 Biomarkers
	Colorectal Neuroendocrine Neoplasms
		Macroscopic Features
			Histopathology
			Grading
			Molecular Pathology
			Staging
	References
24: Genetic Knowledge of Colorectal Cancer
	Cancer Genetics
	Genetics of Colorectal Cancers (CRC)
		Molecular Pathogenesis of Colorectal Cancer
		The Effect of Genomic Aberrations on CRC Formation
	Hereditary Colorectal Cancers
		Hereditary Non-polyposis Colorectal Cancer (HNPCC)
			MMR-Proficient (MMR-P) Hereditary Non-polyposis Colorectal Cancers
			MMR-Deficient (MMR-d) Hereditary Non-polyposis Colorectal Cancers
				Lynch Syndrome
				MSI Evaluation of the Tumor
				Germline Molecular Genetic Evaluation (MMR/EPCAM)
				Lynch-Like Syndrome
				Muir-Torre Syndrome
				Turcot Syndrome
				MMR-Deficient Sporadic Hereditary Non-polyposis Colorectal Cancers
		Hereditary Colorectal Cancers with Polyposis
			Colorectal Polyps
				Familial Adenomatous Polyposis (FAP)
			Mutyh-Related Polyposis (MAP)
			Hamartomatous Polyposis Syndrome
				Peutz-Jeghers Syndrome
				Juvenile Polyposis Syndrome
				Pten Hamartoma Tumor Syndromes (PHTS)
				Cowden Syndrome
	References
25: Pediatric Surgical Perspective to Colon Polyps and Colorectal Carcinomas
	Anatomy of the Colon in the Pediatric Population
	Colonoscopy in Children: Indications, Preparation, Procedure, and Complications
	Colonic Polyps, Polyposis Syndromes, and Colorectal Cancers in the Pediatric Age Group
	Juvenile Polyps
		Solitary Juvenile Polyps
		Juvenile Polyposis Syndromes
	Peutz–Jeghers Syndrome
	Adenomatous Polyps
		Familial Adenomatous Polyposis
	Hereditary Nonpolyposis Colorectal Cancer (HNPCC)/Lynch Syndrome
	Conclusion
	References
26: Surgical Anatomy of the Liver and Biliary Tree
	General Anatomy
	Liver Ligaments
	Functional Anatomy of Liver
		Right Portal Scissura
		Main Portal Scissura (Cantlie’s Line)
		Left Portal Scissura
		Portoumbilical Scissura
	Lobes and Segments of the Liver
		Anatomical Liver Lobes
		Hepatic Segmentation of the Federative Committee on Anatomical Terminology (FCAT)
	Hepatic Arteries
		Common Hepatic Artery
		Left Hepatic Artery
		Right Hepatic Artery
	Portal Vein
	Hepatic Veins
		Right Hepatic Vein
		Middle Hepatic Vein
		Left Hepatic Vein
	Biliary Tract
		Intrahepatic Biliary Tracts
		Right Hepatic Duct
		Left Hepatic Duct
		The Gallbladder
		Common Bile Duct
	Arterial Supply of Biliary Tract
	Lymphatic Drainage of Biliary Tracts
	Neural Supply of Biliary Tract
	References
27: Management of Colorectal Liver Metastases
	Overview
	Mechanism of Colorectal Cancer Liver Metastasis
		Radiological Examination and Diagnosis in Liver Metastases
		Staging with Diagnostic Laparoscopy
	Liver Transplantation for Unresectable Liver Tumors
	Liver Injury After Chemotherapy
	Hepatic Arterial Infusion Pump Chemotherapy
	Medical Treatment in Colorectal Liver Metastasis
	Predictive Factors and Clinical Risk Scores
	Liver Surgery
	Colorectal Cancer with Synchronous Liver Metastasis
	References
28: Liver Resections in Metastatic Colorectal Cancer
	Features of Tumor Spreading in Colorectal Cancer
	Ways to Occur Liver Metastases
	Clinical Features of Metastatic Liver Cancer
	Diagnosis in Metastatic Liver Cancer
	Management of Colorectal Liver Metastases
	Surgical Treatment Options in Liver Metastases
	Liver Resection for Metastases of Colorectal Cancer
	References
29: Liver Transplantation for Non-resectable Colorectal Cancer Liver Metastasis
	Overview of Colorectal Cancer Liver Metastasis
	Treatment Options for Liver Metastasis of Colorectal Cancers
	Previous Experience for Liver Metastasis of Colorectal Cancers
	The Role of Liver Transplantation
		The Factors Affecting Long-Term Survival and Recurrence Patterns
	Future Perspectives and Ongoing Trials
	References
30: Interventional Radiology in General Practice of Colorectal Cancer
	Interventional Radiology in Diagnosis
		Biopsy
			Contraindications
			Preparation Prior to Biopsy
			Guiding Methods
			Technique
			Post-Biopsy Follow-Up
			Complications
	Interventional Radiology in Management of Complications
		Drainage of Fluid
		Indications
		Contraindications
		Alternatives
		Preoperative Evaluation
			Review of Previous Imaging Studies
			Patient Preparation
			Guiding Imaging Method
		Technique
			Catheters
			Approaches
			Techniques
				Seldinger Technique
				Direct Trocar Technique
				Tandem Trocar Technique
			Malignant Ascites
		Postprocedural Follow-Up
			When to Remove the Catheter
		Outcomes
			Clinical Success
			Problems
			Complications
		Management of Obstructions
		Biliary
			Preoperative Evaluation
			Technique
			Postoperative Follow-Up
			Complications
			Clinical Outcomes
			Biliary Stenting
			Complications of Stents
	Colonic Obstruction
		Colonic Stenting
			Indications
			Contraindications
			Methods of Stenting
			Preprocedural Preparation
			Technique for Radiological Colonic Stenting
			Follow-Up
			Outcomes of Stenting
			Types of Stents
			Complications
	Urinary Obstruction
		Technique
		Technical Success and Long-Term Results
		Postoperative Follow-Up
		Complications
	Transarterial Embolization for Bleeding
	References
31: Interventional Radiology in Management of Colorectal Carcinoma Metastasis
	Liver Metastasis
		Ablative Therapies
		Ablation Management of Colorectal Cancer Liver Metastases
		Radiofrequency Ablation (RFA)
		RFA Outcomes
		RFA Complications
		Microwave Ablation
		Microwave Ablation (MWA) Outcomes
		MWA Versus RFA
		Laser Ablation
		Cryoablation
		Intra-arterial Therapies
		HAI
		cTACE
		DEB-TACE
		TARE
			Conclusion
	Portal Vein Embolization
	Pre-op Evaluation
	Contraindications
	Technique
		Guiding Method
		Approaches
			Contralateral Access
			Ipsilateral Access
			Transsplenic Approach
		Procedure
		Embolic Agents
		Additional Strategies to Improve FLR Hypertrophy
			Intraportal Administration of Stem Cells
			Dietary Supplementation
		PVE and Transarterial Embolization
		Sequential and Simultaneous PVE and Hepatic Vein Embolization
		Alternative Procedures/Therapies
	Complications
	Outcomes
	Postprocedural Follow-Up
	Lung Metastasis
		Ablative Therapy
	References
32: Radiotherapy in Early-Stage and Local Advanced Rectal Cancer
	The Role of RT in Early-Stage Disease
	The Role of Radiotherapy in Locally Advanced Disease
		Neoadjuvant Radiotherapy
			Neoadjuvant Short-Course Radiotherapy (SCRT)
			Neoadjuvant Long-Course Chemoradiotherapy (LCCRT)
			Long-Course Chemoradiotherapy Versus Short-Course Chemoradiotherapy
			How Long to Wait After Neoadjuvant Radiotherapy
		Adjuvant Radiotherapy
		Neoadjuvant RT Versus Adjuvant RT
		Gray Zone: T3N0 Disease
		Gray Zone: Follow-Up After Neoadjuvant RT Without Surgical Intervention “Watch-and-Wait”
	Radiotherapy Planning/Techniques and Doses
		Simulation
		Target Volume Delineation and Contouring
		Fractionation and Doses
		Dose Limitations
		Side Effects
	References
33: Radiotherapy in Recurrent and Metastatic Rectal Cancer
	Introduction
		Radiotherapy in Recurrent Disease
		Radiotherapy in Metastatic Disease
	References
34: Systemıc Chemotherapy in Colorectal Cancer
	Chemotherapy Definitions
	Neoadjuvant Treatment in Colorectal Cancer
		Adjuvant Therapy
		FU-Based Treatment
		Oral Fluoropyrimidines
		5FU-Based Combination Regimens with Oxaliplatin
		Targeted Treatments
		Adjuvant Chemotherapy Duration
		Follow-Up in Operated Colorectal Cancer Patient
	Systemic Therapy in Metastatic Colorectal Cancer
		First-Line Chemotherapy Protocols
		First-Line VEGF-Based Treatment Protocols
		First-Line EGFR-Based Treatment Protocols
		Second-Line Treatment Options
		Third-Line Therapy
	Treatment of Rare Conditions
		BRAF Mutation
		Her2
		Fibroblast Growth Factor Receptor
	Conclusions
	References
35: Urological Manifestations of Colorectal Malignancies and Surgical Management of Urological Complications During Colorectal Cancer Surgeries
	Introduction
	Renal Metastasis
	Ureter Metastases
	Bladder Invasions
	Cystectomy
	Bladder-Sparing Techniques
	Prostate-Seminal Vesicle Invasions
	Urethral Invasions
	Penile Metastases
	Iatrogenic Ureteral Trauma (IUT) in Colorectal Surgeries
	Diagnosis Algorithm in IUT
	Prevention of Iatrogenic Trauma
	Classification of Ureteral Trauma
	Management and Treatment Algorithm of Intraoperative Injury in IUT
	What Should Be the Timing of Repair of IUT?
	Proximal and Mid-Ureteral Injury
		Ureteroureterostomy
		Ureterocalicostomy
		Transureteroureterostomy
		Boari Flap Repair
	Distal Ureteral Injury
		Ureteroneocystostomy
		Psoas Hitch
		Long-Segment Strictures
	References
36: Gynecology for Metastatic Colorectal Cancer
	Gynecology for Metastatic Colorectal Cancer
		Epidemiology
		Clinical Symptoms
		Clinicopathological Features of Metastatic Ovarian Tumors
	Morphologic Features of Metastatic Ovarian Tumors
	Diagnostic Workup
	Treatment
		Ovarian Transposition Before Pelvic Radiation for CRC
	References