Colloid Science

Colloid Science Principles, methods and applications......Page 1
Contents......Page 9
Preface......Page 17
Introduction......Page 19
Acknowledgements......Page 21
List of Contributors......Page 23
1.1 Introduction......Page 25
1.2.1 Concentration......Page 29
1.2.2 Interfacial Area......Page 34
1.2.3 Effective Concentrations......Page 35
1.2.4 Average Separation......Page 36
1.3 Stability......Page 38
1.3.1 Quiescent Systems......Page 39
1.3.2 Sedimentation or Creaming......Page 40
1.3.4 Other Forms of Instability......Page 41
1.4 Colloid Frontiers......Page 42
References......Page 44
2.1 Introduction......Page 47
2.2.1 Ionisation of Surface Groups......Page 48
2.2.5 Potential Determining Ions......Page 49
2.3.1 The Stern–Gouy–Chapman (SGC) Model of the Double Layer......Page 50
2.3.2 The Double Layer at the Hg/Electrolyte Interface......Page 54
2.3.3 Specific Adsorption......Page 58
2.4.1 Electrolyte Flow......Page 60
2.4.2 Streaming Potential Measurements......Page 61
2.4.3 Electro-osmosis......Page 62
2.4.4 Electrophoresis......Page 63
References......Page 66
3.1 Introduction......Page 69
3.2.1 Attractive Forces......Page 70
3.2.2 Electrostatic Repulsion......Page 71
3.2.3 Effect of Particle Concentration......Page 73
3.2.4 Total Potential......Page 74
3.3.1 Salt Concentration......Page 75
3.3.2 Counter-ion Valency......Page 76
3.3.4 Particle Size......Page 78
3.4.1 Diffusion-limited Rapid Coagulation......Page 79
3.4.2 Interaction-limited Coagulation......Page 80
3.4.3 Experimental Determination of c.c.c.......Page 81
3.5 Conclusions......Page 82
References......Page 83
4.2 Characteristic Features of Surfactants......Page 85
4.3.1 Types of Surfactants......Page 86
4.3.2 Surfactant Uses and Development......Page 88
4.4.1 Surface Tension and Surface Activity......Page 90
4.4.2 Surface Excess and Thermodynamics of Adsorption......Page 91
4.4.3 Efficiency and Effectiveness of Surfactant Adsorption......Page 95
4.5.1 The Krafft Temperature......Page 97
4.5.2 The Cloud Point......Page 98
4.6.1 Thermodynamics of Micellisation......Page 99
4.6.2 Factors Affecting the CMC......Page 102
4.6.3 Structure of Micelles and Molecular Packing......Page 104
4.7.1 Definition......Page 106
4.7.2 Structures......Page 107
4.7.3 Phase Diagrams......Page 110
4.8 Advanced Surfactants......Page 111
References......Page 112
5.2 Microemulsions: Definition and History......Page 115
5.3.1 Interfacial Tension in Microemulsions......Page 117
5.4.1 Predicting Microemulsion Type......Page 119
5.4.2 Surfactant Film Properties......Page 125
5.4.3 Phase Behaviour......Page 131
5.5.1 Microemulsions with Green and Novel Solvents......Page 134
5.5.2 Microemulsions as Reaction Media for Nanoparticles......Page 137
References......Page 138
6.1.1 Definitions of Emulsion Type......Page 141
6.2.1 Comminution – Batch......Page 144
6.2.3 Nucleation and Growth......Page 148
6.3.2 Sedimentation and Creaming......Page 150
6.3.3 Aggregation......Page 151
6.3.4 Coalescence......Page 152
6.3.5 Ostwald Ripening......Page 154
6.3.6 Phase Inversion......Page 155
References......Page 157
7.2 Polymerisation......Page 159
7.2.2 Free Radical......Page 160
7.3 Copolymers......Page 161
7.6 Theoretical Models of Polymer Structure......Page 162
7.6.1 Radius of Gyration......Page 163
7.6.2 Worm-like Chains......Page 165
7.6.4 Excluded Volume......Page 166
7.6.5 Scaling Theory: Blobs......Page 167
7.7 Measuring Polymer Molecular Weight......Page 168
7.8.1 Polymer Solutions......Page 170
References......Page 174
8.1 Introduction......Page 175
8.1.2 The Size and Shape of Polymers in Solution......Page 176
8.1.3 Adsorption of Small Molecules......Page 178
8.2.2 The Flory Surface Parameter ws......Page 179
8.3.1 Atomistic Modelling......Page 180
8.3.2 Exact Enumeration: Terminally Attached Chains......Page 181
8.3.4 Scaling Models for Terminally Attached Chains (Brushes)......Page 184
8.3.5 Physically Adsorbed Chains: Scheutjens and Fleer Theory......Page 185
8.3.6 Scaling Theory for Physical Adsorption......Page 189
8.4.1 Volume Fraction Profiles......Page 190
8.4.2 Adsorption Isotherms......Page 191
8.4.3 The Bound Fraction......Page 194
8.4.4 The Layer Thickness......Page 195
8.5 Copolymers......Page 199
8.5.1 Liquid/Liquid Interfaces......Page 200
8.6 Polymer Brushes......Page 201
8.7 Conclusions......Page 203
References......Page 204
9.1.1 Colloid Stability......Page 205
9.2 Particle Interaction Potential......Page 206
9.3.1 Theory......Page 207
9.3.2 Steric Stabiliser Design......Page 210
9.3.3 Marginal Solvents......Page 211
9.4 Depletion Interactions......Page 213
9.5 Bridging Interactions......Page 216
9.6 Conclusion......Page 217
References......Page 218
10.1 Introduction......Page 221
10.3 Surface Tension......Page 222
10.5 Contact Angles......Page 223
10.6 Wetting......Page 224
10.7 Liquid Spreading and Spreading Coefficients......Page 226
10.8 Cohesion and Adhesion......Page 227
10.9 Two Liquids on a Surface......Page 228
10.11 Spreading of a Liquid on a Liquid......Page 231
10.13 Polar and Dispersive Components......Page 234
10.14 Polar Materials......Page 235
10.15 Wettability Envelopes......Page 236
10.16 Measurement Methods......Page 238
References......Page 240
11.1 Introduction......Page 243
11.2.1 Generating Aerosols......Page 246
11.2.2 Sampling Aerosol......Page 248
11.3 Determining the Particle Concentration and Size......Page 249
11.3.2 Determining the Mass Concentration......Page 250
11.3.3 Determining Particle Size......Page 251
11.4.1 Off-line Analysis......Page 254
11.4.2 Real-time Analysis......Page 255
11.5.1 Deliquescence and Efflorescence......Page 258
11.5.2 K€ohler Theory......Page 259
11.5.3 Measurements of Hygroscopic Growth......Page 261
11.6 The Kinetics of Aerosol Transformation......Page 262
11.6.1 Steady and Unsteady Mass and Heat Transfer......Page 263
11.6.2 Uptake of Trace Species and Heterogeneous Chemistry......Page 264
References......Page 266
12.2 Making Measurements......Page 269
12.2.1 Definitions......Page 270
12.2.2 Designing an Experiment......Page 272
12.2.3 Geometries......Page 274
12.2.4 Viscometry......Page 276
12.2.5 Shear Thinning and Thickening Behaviour......Page 278
12.3.1 Viscoelasticity and Deborah Number......Page 280
12.3.2 Oscillation and Linearity......Page 281
12.3.3 Creep Compliance......Page 282
12.3.4 Liquid and Solid Behaviour......Page 283
12.3.5 Sedimentation and Storage Stability......Page 285
12.4 Examples of Soft Materials......Page 287
12.4.1 Simple Particles and Polymers......Page 288
12.4.2 Networks and Functionalisation......Page 291
12.4.4 Particle Additives......Page 292
12.5 Summary......Page 295
References......Page 296
13.1 Introduction......Page 297
13.2 The Principle of a Scattering Experiment......Page 298
13.3 Radiation for Scattering Experiments......Page 299
13.4 Light Scattering......Page 300
13.5 Dynamic Light Scattering......Page 302
13.7 Sources of Radiation......Page 303
13.8 Small Angle Scattering Apparatus......Page 304
13.9 Scattering and Absorption by Atoms......Page 306
13.10 Scattering Length Density......Page 307
13.11 Small Angle Scattering from a Dispersion......Page 308
13.13 Determining Particle Size from SANS and SAXS......Page 309
13.15 Determination of Particle Shape......Page 310
13.16 Polydispersity......Page 311
13.17 Determination of Particle Size Distribution......Page 312
13.19 Concentrated Dispersions......Page 313
13.20 Contrast Variation using SANS......Page 314
13.21 High Q Limit: Porod Law......Page 316
13.22 Introduction to X-ray and Neutron Reflection......Page 318
13.24 A Simple Example of a Reflection Measurement......Page 319
References......Page 321
14.2 Manipulating Matter with Light......Page 323
14.3 Force Generation in Optical Tweezers......Page 326
14.4 Nanofabrication......Page 328
14.5.1 Measuring Nanometer Displacements......Page 329
14.5.2 Brownian Fluctuations in an Optical Trap......Page 330
14.5.3 Dynamical Complexity in Colloidal Gels......Page 331
References......Page 332
15.1 General Features of (Electron) Optical Imaging Systems......Page 335
15.2.1 Background......Page 337
15.2.2 Practical Aspects......Page 338
15.2.3 Polymer Latex Particles......Page 339
15.2.4 Core/Shell Particles......Page 340
15.2.5 Internal Structure......Page 341
15.3.3 Practical Aspects......Page 345
References......Page 351
16.1.1 Intermolecular Forces......Page 353
16.1.2 From Intermolecular Forces to Surface Forces......Page 354
16.1.3 Why Measure Surface Forces?......Page 357
16.2.1 Pressure, Force and Energy......Page 358
16.2.2 The Derjaguin Approximation......Page 359
16.3.1 Optical Tweezers......Page 363
16.3.3 Atomic Force Microscope (AFM)......Page 364
16.3.5 Other Techniques......Page 365
16.4 Different Types of Surface Forces......Page 366
16.4.1 van der Waals Forces......Page 367
16.4.2 Electric Double Layer Forces in a Polar Liquid......Page 368
16.4.4 Non-DLVO Forces......Page 369
16.4.5 Neutral Polymer-mediated Surface Forces......Page 376
16.4.6 Surface Forces in Surfactant Solutions......Page 379
16.5 Recent Examples of Surface Force Measurement......Page 380
16.5.1 Counter-Ion Only (CIO) Electric Double Layer Interactions in a Non-Polar Liquid......Page 381
16.5.3 Boundary Lubrication Under Water......Page 382
16.6 Future Challenges......Page 384
References......Page 385
Index......Page 387