Cognitive Psychology: Connecting Mind, Research and Everyday Experience

Title page
Copyright Page
Brief Contents
Contents
CogLab Experiments
Demonstrations
Methods
Preface to Instructors
Preface to Students
Acknowledgments
Chapter 1: Introduction to Cognitive Psychology
	Cognitive Psychology: Studying the Mind
		What Is the Mind?
		Studying the Mind: Early Work in Cognitive Psychology
	Abandoning the Study of the Mind
		Watson Founds Behaviorism
		Skinner’s Operant Conditioning
		Setting the Stage for the Reemergence of the Mind in Psychology
	The Rebirth of the Study of the Mind
		Paradigms and Paradigm Shifts
		Introduction of the Digital Computer
		Conferences on Artificial Intelligence and Information Theory
		The Cognitive “Revolution” Took a While
	The Evolution of Cognitive Psychology
		What Neisser Wrote
		Studying Higher Mental Processes
		Studying the Physiology of Cognition
		New Perspectives on Behavior
	SOMETHING TO CONSIDER
		Learning from This Book
	TEST YOURSELF 1 . 1
	CHAPTER SUMMARY
	THINK ABOUT IT
	KEY TERMS
	COGLAB EXPERIMENTS
Chapter 2: Cognitive Neuroscience
	Levels of Analysis
	Neurons: Basic Principles
		Early Conceptions of Neurons
		The Signals That Travel in Neurons
	Representation by Neural Firing
		The Story of Neural Representation and Cognition: A Preview
		Feature Detectors
		Neurons That Respond to Complex Stimuli
		Sensory Coding
		TEST YOURSELF 2.1
	Localized Representation
		Localization Determined by Neuropsychology
		Localization Determined by Recording from Neurons
		Localization Demonstrated by Brain Imaging
	Distributed Representation
		Looking at a Face
		Remembering
		Producing and Understanding Language
	Neural Networks
		Structural Connectivity
		Functional Connectivity
		The Dynamics of Cognition
		The Default Mode Network
	SOMETHING TO CONSIDER: Technology Determines the Questions We Can Ask
	TEST YOURSELF 2.2
	CHAPTER SUMMARY
	THINK ABOUT IT
	KEY TERMS
	COGLAB EXPERIMENTS
Chapter 3: Perception
	The Nature of Perception
		Some Basic Characteristics of Perception
		A Human Perceives Objects and a Scene
		DEMONSTRATION Perceptual Puzzles in a Scene
		A Computer-Vision System Perceives Objects and a Scene
	Why Is It So Difficult to Design a Perceiving Machine?
		The Stimulus on the Receptors Is Ambiguous
		Objects Can Be Hidden or Blurred
		Objects Look Different fromDifferent Viewpoints
		Scenes Contain High-Level Information
	Information for Human Perception
		Perceiving Objects
		Hearing Words in a Sentence
		TEST YOURSELF 3.1
	Conceptions of Object Perception
		Helmholtz’s Theory of Unconscious Inference
		The Gestalt Principles of Organization
		Taking Regularities of the Environment into Account
		DEMONSTRATION Visualizing Scenes and Objects
		Bayesian Inference
		Comparing the Four Approaches
		TEST YOURSELF 3.2
	Neurons and Knowledge About the Environment
		Neurons That Respond to Horizontals and Verticals
		Experience-Dependent Plasticity
	Perception and Action: Behavior
		Movement Facilitates Perception
		The Interaction of Perception and Action
	Perception and Action: Physiology
		What and Where Streams
		METHOD Brain Ablation
		Perception and Action Streams
		Mirror Neurons
	SOMETHING TO CONSIDER: KNOWLEDGE,INFERENCE, AND PREDICTION
	TEST YOURSELF 3.3
	CHAPTER SUMMARY
	THINK ABOUT IT
	KEY TERMS
	COGLAB EXPERIMENTS
Chapter 4: Attention
	Attention as Information Processing
		Broadbent’s Filter Model of Attention
		Modifying Broadbent’s Model: More Early Selection Models
		A Late Selection Model
	Processing Capacity and Perceptual Load
		DEMONSTRATION The Stroop Effect
		TEST YOURSELF 4 . 1
	Directing Attention by Scanning a Scene
		Scanning a Scene With Eye Movements
		Scanning Based on Stimulus Salience
		Scanning Based on Cognitive Factors
		Scanning Based on Task Demands
	Outcomes of Attention
		Attention Improves Our Ability to Respond to a Location
		Attention Improves Our Abilityto Respond to Objects
		Attention Affects Perception
		Attention Affects Physiological Responding
		TEST YOURSELF 4.2
	Divided Attention: Can We Attend to More ThanOne Thing at a Time?
		Divided Attention Can Be Achieved With Practice: Automatic Processing
		Divided Attention Becomes More Difficult WhenTasks Are Harder
	Distractions
		Distractions by Cell Phones while Driving
		Distractions by the Internet
		Distraction Caused by Mind Wandering
	What Happens When We Don’t Attend?
		Inattentional Blindness
		Inattentional Deafness
		Change Detection
		DEMONSTRATION Change Detection
		What About Everyday Experience?
	Attention and Experiencing a Coherent World
		Feature Integration Theory
		Evidence for Feature Integration Theory
		DEMONSTRATION Searching for Conjunctions
	SOMETHING TO CONSIDER: Attentional Networks
	TEST YOURSELF 4.3
	CHAPTER SUMMARY
	THINK ABOUT IT
	KEY TERMS
	COGLAB EXPERIMENTS
Chapter 5: Short-Term and Working Memory
	The Modal Model of Memory
	Sensory Memory
		The Sparkler’s Trail and the Projector’s Shutter
		Sperling’s Experiment: Measuring the Capacityand Duration of the Sensory Store
	Short-Term Memory: Storage
		What Is the Duration of Short-Term Memory?
		How Many Items Can Be Held in Short-Term Memory?
		METHOD Change Detection
		DEMONSTRATION Remembering Letters
		How Much Information Can Be Held in Short-Term Memory?
		TEST YOURSELF 5 . 1
	Working Memory: Manipulating Information
		DEMONSTRATION Reading Text and Remembering Numbers
		The Phonological Loop
		DEMONSTRATION Articulatory Suppression
		The Visuospatial Sketch Pad
		DEMONSTRATION Comparing Objects
		DEMONSTRATION Recalling Visual Patterns
		DEMONSTRATION Holding a Spatial Stimulus in the Mind
		The Central Executive
		An Added Component: The Episodic Buffer
	Working Memory and the Brain
		The Effect of Damage to the Prefrontal Cortex
		Prefrontal Neurons That Hold Information
		The Neural Dynamics of Working Memory
	SOMETHING TO CONSIDER: WHY IS MOREWORKING MEMORY BETTER?
		METHOD Event-Related Potential
	TEST YOURSELF 5.2
	CHAPTER SUMMARY
	THINK ABOUT IT
	KEY TERMS
	COGLAB EXPERIMENTS
Chapter 6: Long-Term Memory: Structure
	Comparing Short-Term and Long-TermMemory Processes
		Serial Position Curve
		Coding in Short-Term and Long-Term Memory
		METHOD Measuring Recognition Memory
		DEMONSTRATION Reading a Passage
		Comparing Coding in Short-Term and Long-Term Memory
		Locating Memory in the Brain
		TEST YOURSELF 6 . 1
	Episodic and Semantic Memory
		Distinctions Between Episodic and Semantic Memory
		Interactions Between Episodic and Semantic Memory
		What Happens to Episodic and Semantic Memoriesas Time Passes?
	Back to the Future
		TEST YOURSELF 6.2
	Procedural Memory, Priming, and Conditioning
		Procedural Memory
		DEMONSTRATION Mirror Drawing
		Priming
		METHOD Avoiding Explicit Remembering in a Priming
		Classical Conditioning
	SOMETHING TO CONSIDER: Memory Loss in the Movies
	TEST YOURSELF 6.3
	CHAPTER SUMMARY
	THINK ABOUT IT
	KEY TERMS
	COGLAB EXPERIMENTS
Chapter 7: LTM: Encoding, Retrieval,and Consolidation
	Encoding: Getting Information intoLong-Term Memory
		Levels of Processing Theory
		Forming Visual Images
		Linking Words to Yourself
		Generating Information
		Organizing Information
		DEMONSTRATION Remembering a List
		Relating Words to Survival Value
		Retrieval Practice
		TEST YOURSELF 7 . 1
	Effective Studying
		Elaborate
		Generate and Test
		Organize
		Take Breaks
		Avoid “Illusions of Learning”
		Be An “Active” Note-Taker
	Retrieval: Getting Information Out of Memory
		Retrieval Cues
		METHOD Cued Recall
		Matching Conditions of Encoding and Retrieval
		TEST YOURSELF 7 . 2
	Consolidation: Establishing Memories
		Synaptic Consolidation: ExperienceCauses Changes at the Synapse
		Systems Consolidation: The Hippocampus and the Cortex
		METHOD Multivoxel Pattern Analysis (MVPA)
		Consolidation and Sleep:Enhancing Memory
	Reconsolidation: The Dynamics of Memory
		Reconsolidation: A Famous Rat Experiment
		Reconsolidation in Humans
		A Practical Outcome of Reconsolidation Research
	Something to Consider: Alternative Explanationsin Cognitive Psychology
	TEST YOURSELF 7 . 3
	CHAPTER SUMMARY
	THINK ABOUT IT
	KEY TERMS
	COGLAB EXPERIMENTS
Chapter 8: Everyday Memoryand Memory Errors
	The Journey So Far
	Autobiographical Memory: What HasHappened in My Life
		The Multidimensional Nature of Autobiographical Memory
		Memory Over the Life Span
	Memory for “Exceptional” Events
		Memory and Emotion
		Flashbulb Memories
		METHOD Repeated Recall
		TEST YOURSELF 8 . 1
	The Constructive Nature of Memory
		Source Monitoring Errors
		The Illusory Truth Effect
		How Real-World Knowledge Affects Memory
		DEMONSTRATION Reading Sentences
		DEMONSTRATION Memory for a List
		What Is It Like to Have “Exceptional” Memory?
		TEST YOURSELF 8 . 2
	The Misinformation Effect
		METHOD Presenting Misleading Postevent Information
	Creating Memories for Events in People’s Lives
		Creating Childhood Memories
		Legal Implications of False Memory Research
	Why Do People Make Errors in Eyewitness Testimony?
		Errors of Eyewitness Identification
		Errors Associated with Perception and Attention
		Misidentifications Due to Familiarity
		Errors Due to Suggestion
		What Is Being Done to Improve Eyewitness Testimony?
		Eliciting False Confessions
	SOMETHING TO CONSIDER: Music- and Odor-Elicited Autobiographical Memories
	TEST YOURSELF 8 . 3
		DEMONSTRATION Reading Sentences (Continued)
	CHAPTER SUMMARY
	THINK ABOUT IT
	KEY TERMS
	COGLAB EXPERIMENTS
Chapter 9: Conceptual Knowledge
	Basic Properties of Concepts and Categories
	How Are Objects Placed into Categories?
		Why Definitions Don’t Work for Categories
		The Prototype Approach: Finding the Average Case
		DEMONSTRATION Family Resemblance
		METHOD Sentence Verification Technique
		The Exemplar Approach: Thinking About Examples
		Which Approach Works Better: Prototypes or Exemplars?
	Is There a Psychologically “Basic” Levelof Categories?
		Rosch’s Approach: What’s Special About BasicLevel Categories?
		DEMONSTRATION Listing Common Features
		DEMONSTRATION Naming Things
		How Knowledge Can Affect Categorization
		TEST YOURSELF 9 . 1
	Network Models of Categorization
	Representing Relationships Among Categories:Semantic Networks
		Introduction to Semantic Networks: Collins and Quillian’sHierarchical Model
		Criticism of the Collins and Quillian Model
	The Connectionist Approach
		What Is a Connectionist Model?
		How Are Concepts Represented in a Connectionist Network?
		TEST YOURSELF 9 . 2
	How Concepts Are Represented in the Brain
	Four Proposals About How ConceptsAre Represented in the Brain
		The Sensory-Functional Hypothesis
		The Multiple-Factor Approach
		The Semantic Category Approach
		The Embodied Approach
		Summarizing the Approaches
	Something to Consider: The Hub and Spoke Model
		METHOD Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (TMS)
	TEST YOURSELF 9 . 3
	CHAPTER SUMMARY
	THINK ABOUT IT
	KEY TERMS
	COGLAB EXPERIMENTS
Chapter 10: Visual Imagery
	Imagery in the History of Psychology
		Early Ideas About Imagery
		Imagery and the Cognitive Revolution
		METHOD Paired-Associate Learning
	Imagery and Perception: Do They Sharethe Same Mechanisms?
		Kosslyn’s Mental Scanning Experiments
		METHOD/DEMONSTRATION Mental Scanning
		The Imagery Debate: Is Imagery Spatial or Propositional?
		Comparing Imagery and Perception
	Imagery and the Brain
		Imagery Neurons in the Human Brain
		METHOD Recording from Single Neurons in Humans
		Brain Imaging
		Multivoxel Pattern Analysis
		Neuropsychological Case Studies
		Conclusions from the Imagery Debate
	Using Imagery to Improve Memory
		Placing Images at Locations
		DEMONSTRATION Method of Loci
		Associating Images with Words
	SOMETHING TO CONSIDER: Individual Differences in Visual Imagery
	TEST YOURSELF 10.2
	CHAPTER SUMMARY
	THINK ABOUT IT
	KEY TERMS
	COGLAB EXPERIMENTS
Chapter 11: Language
	What is Language?
		The Creativity of Human Language
		The Universal Need to Communicate with Language
		Studying Language
	Understanding Words: A Few Complications
		Not All Words Are Created Equal: Differences in Frequency
		The Pronunciation of Words Is Variable
		There Are No Silences Between Words in Normal Conversation
	Understanding Ambiguous Words
		Accessing Multiple Meanings
		METHOD Lexical Priming
		Frequency Influences Which Meanings Are Activated
		TEST YOURSELF 11.1
	Understanding Sentences
		Parsing: Making Sense of Sentences
		The Garden Path Model of Parsing
		The Constraint-Based Approach to Parsing
		Prediction, Prediction, Prediction…
		TEST YOURSELF 11.2
	Understanding Text and Stories
		Making Inferences
		Situation Models
	Having Conversations
		The Given–New Contract
		Common Ground: Taking the Other Person into Account
		Establishing Common Ground
		Syntactic Coordination
		METHOD Syntactic Priming
	SOMETHING TO CONSIDERMusic and Language
		Music and Language: Similarities and Differences
		Expectations in Music and Language
		Do Music and Language Overlap in the Brain?
	TEST YOURSELF 11.3
	CHAPTER SUMMARY
	THINK ABOUT IT
	KEY TERMS
	COGLAB EXPERIMENTS
Chapter 12: Problem Solving & Creativity
	What Is a Problem?
	The Gestalt Approach
		Representing a Problem in the Mind
		The Idea of Insight
		DEMONSTRATION Two Insight Problems
		Functional Fixedness and Mental Set
		DEMONSTRATION The Candle Problem
	The Information-Processing Approach
		Newell and Simon’s Approach
		DEMONSTRATION The Tower of Hanoi Problem
		The Importance of How a Problem Is Stated
		DEMONSTRATION The Mutilated Checkerboard Problem
		METHOD Think-Aloud Protocol
		TEST YOURSELF 12.1
	Using Analogies to Solve Problems
		Analogical Transfer
		DEMONSTRATION Duncker’s Radiation Problem
		Analogical Encoding
		Analogy in the Real World
		METHOD In Vivo Problem-Solving Research
	How Experts Solve Problems
		Differences Between How Experts and Novices Solve Problems
		Expertise Is Only an Advantage in the Expert’s Specialty
	Creative Problem Solving
		What Is Creativity?
		Practical Creativity
		Generating Ideas
		DEMONSTRATION Creating an Object
	Creativity and the Brain
		Opening the Mind to Think “Outside the Box”
		Brain “Preparation” for Insight and Analytical Problem Solving
		Networks Associated with Creativity
	SOMETHING TO CONSIDERWired to Create: Things Creative People Do Differently
		Daydreaming
		Solitude
		Mindfulness
	TEST YOURSELF 12.2
	CHAPTER SUMMARY
	THINK ABOUT IT
	KEY TERMS
Chapter 13: Judgment, Decisions, and Reasoning
	Inductive Reasoning: Making Judgmentsfrom Observations
		The Availability Heuristic
		DEMONSTRATION Which Is More Prevalent?
		The Representativeness Heuristic
		DEMONSTRATION Judging Occupations
		DEMONSTRATION Description of a Person
		DEMONSTRATION Male and Female Births
		Attitudes Can Affect Judgment
		Evaluating False Evidence
	TEST YOURSELF 13.1
	Deductive Reasoning: Syllogisms and Logic
		Categorical Syllogisms
		Mental Models of Deductive Reasoning
		Conditional Syllogisms
		Conditional Reasoning: The Wason Four-Card Problem
		DEMONSTRATION The Wason Four-Card Problem
	TEST YOURSELF 13.2
	Decision Making: Choosing Among Alternatives
		The Utility Approach to Decisions
		How Emotions Affect Decisions
		Decisions Can Depend on the Context WithinWhich They Are Made
		Decisions Can Depend on How Choices Are Presented
		DEMONSTRATION What Would You Do?
		Neuroeconomics: The Neural Basis of Decision Making
	SOMETHING TO CONSIDER: The Dual Systems Approach to Thinking
	POSTSCRIPT: DONDERS RETURNS
	TEST YOURSELF 13.3
	CHAPTER SUMMARY
	THINK ABOUT IT
	KEY TERMS
	COGLAB EXPERIMENTS
Glossary
References
Name Index
Subject Index