Cognitive Linguistics: An Introduction

Cover......Page 1
Title page......Page 5
Contents......Page 7
Who is this book for?......Page 21
Using the book......Page 22
Acknowledgements......Page 25
Abbreviations, symbols and transcription......Page 27
Part I: Overview of the cognitive linguistics enterprise......Page 29
Introduction......Page 31
1 What does it mean to know a language?......Page 33
1.1.1  The symbolic function of language......Page 34
1.1.2  The interactive function of language......Page 37
1.2  The systematic structure of language......Page 39
1.2.1  Evidence for a system......Page 40
1.2.2  The systematic structure of thought......Page 42
1.3.1  What?......Page 43
1.3.4  Speaker intuitions......Page 44
1.3.5  Converging evidence......Page 45
1.4  What it means to know a language......Page 46
1.5  Summary......Page 48
Further reading......Page 50
Exercises......Page 51
2.1  Two key commitments......Page 55
2.1.1  The ‘Generalisation Commitment’......Page 56
2.1.2  The ‘Cognitive Commitment’......Page 68
2.2  The embodied mind......Page 72
2.2.1  Embodied experience......Page 73
2.2.2  Embodied cognition......Page 74
2.2.3  Experiential realism......Page 75
2.3  Cognitive semantics and cognitive approaches to grammar......Page 76
Further reading......Page 78
Exercises......Page 80
3 Universals and variation in language, thought and experience......Page 82
3.1  Universals in thought and language......Page 83
3.1.1  Typological universals......Page 85
3.1.2  Universals in formal linguistics......Page 88
3.1.3  Universals in cognitive linguistics......Page 91
3.2.1  Patterns in the conceptualisation of space......Page 96
3.2.2  Patterns in the conceptualisation of time......Page 103
3.3.1  Variation in the conceptualisation of space......Page 115
3.3.2  Variation in the conceptualisation of time......Page 120
3.4  Linguistic relativity and cognitive linguistics......Page 123
3.4.1  Whorf and the Linguistic Relativity Principle......Page 124
3.4.2  Language as a shaper of thought......Page 126
3.5  Summary......Page 129
Further reading......Page 130
Exercises......Page 133
4 Language in use: knowledge of language, language change and language acquisition......Page 136
4.1.1  A usage event......Page 137
4.1.2  The relationship between usage and linguistic structure......Page 139
4.1.4  Context......Page 140
4.2  Cognitive Grammar......Page 142
4.2.2  Schemas and their instantiations......Page 143
4.2.3  Partial sanction......Page 144
4.2.4  The non-reductive nature of schemas......Page 145
4.2.5  Frequency in schema formation......Page 146
4.3  A usage-based approach to language change......Page 148
4.3.1  Historical linguistics and language change......Page 149
4.3.2  The Utterance Selection Theory of language change......Page 151
4.3.3  The Generalised Theory of Selection and the Theory of Utterance Selection......Page 153
4.3.4  Causal mechanisms for language change......Page 155
4.4  The usage-based approach to language acquisition......Page 161
4.4.1  Empirical findings in language acquisition......Page 162
4.4.2  The cognitive view: sociocognitive mechanisms in language acquisition......Page 164
4.4.3  Comparing the generative view of language acquisition......Page 168
4.5  Summary......Page 174
Further reading......Page 175
Exercises......Page 176
Part II: Cognitive semantics......Page 179
Introduction......Page 181
5 What is cognitive semantics?......Page 184
5.1.1  Conceptual structure is embodied......Page 185
5.1.2  Semantic structure is conceptual structure......Page 186
5.1.3  Meaning representation is encyclopaedic......Page 188
5.1.4  Meaning construction is conceptualisation......Page 190
5.2.1  The bodily basis of meaning......Page 191
5.2.2  Conceptual structure......Page 193
5.2.3  Encyclopaedic semantics......Page 194
5.2.4  Mappings......Page 195
5.2.5  Categorisation......Page 196
5.2.6  Word meaning and polysemy......Page 197
5.3  Methodology......Page 198
5.4  Some comparisons with formal approaches to semantics......Page 199
5.5  Summary......Page 200
Further reading......Page 201
Exercises......Page 202
6 Embodiment and conceptual structure......Page 204
6.1  Image schemas......Page 205
6.1.1  What is an image schema?......Page 206
6.1.2  Properties of image schemas......Page 207
6.1.3  Image schemas and linguistic meaning......Page 217
6.1.5  Image schemas and abstract thought......Page 218
6.2  Conceptual structure......Page 219
6.2.1  Semantic structure......Page 220
6.2.2  Schematic systems......Page 222
Further reading......Page 229
Exercises......Page 230
7 The encyclopaedic view of meaning......Page 234
7.1.1  The dictionary view......Page 235
7.1.2  Problems with the dictionary view......Page 238
7.1.3  Word meaning versus sentence meaning......Page 241
7.1.4 The encyclopaedic view......Page 243
7.2.2  Frames in cognitive psychology......Page 250
7.2.3  The COMMERCIAL EVENT frame......Page 253
7.2.4  Speech event frames......Page 256
7.2.5  Consequences of adopting a frame-based model......Page 257
7.3.1  What is a domain?......Page 258
7.3.2  Basic, image-schematic and abstract domains......Page 260
7.3.3  Other characteristics of domains......Page 263
7.3.4  Profile/base organisation......Page 264
7.3.5  Active zones......Page 266
7.4  The perceptual basis of knowledge representation......Page 268
7.5  Summary......Page 271
Further reading......Page 272
Exercises......Page 273
8 Categorisation and idealised cognitive models......Page 276
8.1  Categorisation and cognitive semantics......Page 277
8.1.1  The classical theory......Page 279
8.1.2  The definitional problem......Page 280
8.1.3  The problem of conceptual fuzziness......Page 281
8.1.5  Further problems......Page 282
8.2.1  Principles of categorisation......Page 283
8.2.3  The vertical dimension......Page 284
8.2.4  The horizontal dimension......Page 292
8.2.5  Problems with prototype theory......Page 296
8.3  The theory of idealised cognitive models......Page 297
8.3.1  Sources of typicality effects......Page 298
8.3.2  Radial categories as a further source of typicality effects......Page 303
8.3.3  Addressing the problems with prototype theory......Page 306
8.4  The structure of ICMs......Page 307
8.5  Summary......Page 309
Further reading......Page 310
Exercises......Page 311
9 Metaphor and metonymy......Page 314
9.1.1  Literal and figurative language as complex concepts......Page 315
9.1.2  Can the distinction be maintained?......Page 317
9.2  What is metaphor?......Page 321
9.3.1  The unidirectionality of metaphor......Page 324
9.3.2  Motivation for target and source......Page 325
9.3.3  Metaphorical entailments......Page 326
9.3.4  Metaphor systems......Page 327
9.3.5  Metaphors and image schemas......Page 328
9.3.6  Invariance......Page 329
9.3.8  Hiding and highlighting......Page 331
9.4.1  Primary and compound metaphors......Page 332
9.4.2  Experiential correlation......Page 333
9.4.3  Motivating primary metaphors......Page 334
9.4.4  Distinguishing primary and compound metaphors......Page 335
9.5  What is metonymy?......Page 338
9.6  Conceptual metonymy......Page 342
9.6.1  Metonymy as an access mechanism......Page 343
9.6.2  Metonymy-producing relationships......Page 344
9.6.3  Vehicles for metonymy......Page 345
9.7  Metaphor-metonymy interaction......Page 346
9.8  Summary......Page 349
Further reading......Page 350
Exercises......Page 353
10 Word meaning and radial categories......Page 356
10.1  Polysemy as a conceptual phenomenon......Page 357
10.2  Words as radial categories......Page 359
10.3  The full-specification approach......Page 361
10.3.1  Image schema transformations......Page 365
10.4  Problems with the full-specification approach......Page 367
10.5.1  Distinguishing between senses......Page 370
10.5.2  Establishing the prototypical sense......Page 372
10.5.3  Illustration of a radial category based on Principled Polysemy......Page 375
10.5.4  Beyond prepositions......Page 376
10.6  The importance of context for polysemy......Page 380
10.6.1  Usage context: subsenses......Page 381
10.6.2  Sentential context: facets......Page 382
10.7  Summary......Page 383
Further reading......Page 384
Exercises......Page 387
11 Meaning construction and mental spaces......Page 391
11.1  Sentence meaning in formal semantics......Page 392
11.2  Meaning construction in cognitive semantics......Page 393
11.3  Towards a cognitive theory of meaning construction......Page 396
11.4.2  Elements......Page 399
11.4.3  Properties and relations......Page 400
11.4.4  Mental space lattices......Page 402
11.4.5  Counterparts and connectors......Page 403
11.4.6  The Access Principle......Page 404
11.4.7  Roles and values......Page 409
11.5  An illustration of mental space construction......Page 410
11.6  The dynamic nature of meaning construction......Page 414
11.6.1  Tense and aspect in English......Page 415
11.6.2  The tense-aspect system in Mental Spaces Theory......Page 417
11.6.3  Epistemic distance......Page 422
11.7  Summary......Page 424
Exercises......Page 425
12 Conceptual blending......Page 428
12.1  The origins of Blending Theory......Page 429
12.2  Towards a theory of conceptual integration......Page 431
12.3  The nature of blending......Page 435
12.3.1  The elements of conceptual blending......Page 436
12.3.2  Further linguistic examples......Page 438
12.3.3  Non-linguistic examples......Page 443
12.4  Vital relations and compressions......Page 446
12.4.1  Vital relations......Page 447
12.4.2  A taxonomy of vital relations and their compressions......Page 448
12.4.3 Disintegration and decompression......Page 453
12.5.2  Mirror networks......Page 454
12.5.3  Single-scope networks......Page 455
12.5.4  Double-scope networks......Page 457
12.6  Multiple blending......Page 459
12.7  Constraining Blending Theory......Page 461
12.8.1  Contrasts......Page 463
12.8.3  What Blending Theory adds to Conceptual Metaphor Theory......Page 465
12.9  Summary......Page 467
Further reading......Page 468
Exercises......Page 469
13 Cognitive semantics in context......Page 473
13.1.2  Object language versus metalanguage......Page 474
13.1.3  The inconsistency of natural language......Page 475
13.1.4  Sentences and propositions......Page 476
13.1.5  Truth-conditional semantics and the generative enterprise......Page 477
13.1.6  Compositionality of meaning......Page 478
13.1.7  Translating natural language into a metalanguage......Page 479
13.1.8  Semantic interpretation and matching......Page 480
13.1.9  Comparison with cognitive semantics......Page 483
13.2.2  Mutual cognitive environment......Page 487
13.2.3  Relevance......Page 488
13.2.4  Explicature and implicature......Page 489
13.2.6  Comparison with cognitive semantics......Page 491
13.3  Summary......Page 493
Exercises......Page 494
Part III: Cognitive approaches to grammar......Page 497
Introduction......Page 499
14 What is a cognitive approach to grammar?......Page 503
14.1.1  The symbolic thesis......Page 504
14.1.2  The usage-based thesis......Page 506
14.1.3  The architecture of the model......Page 507
14.2.2  Cognitive Grammar......Page 508
14.2.3  Constructional approaches to grammar......Page 509
14.2.4  Cognitive approaches to grammaticalisation......Page 510
14.3  Grammatical terminology......Page 511
14.3.2  Units of grammar......Page 512
14.3.3  Word classes......Page 514
14.3.4  Syntax......Page 520
14.3.5  Grammatical functions......Page 522
14.3.6  Agreement and case......Page 526
14.4  Characteristics of the cognitive approach to grammar......Page 528
14.4.1  Grammatical knowledge: a structured inventory of symbolic units......Page 529
14.4.2  Features of the closed-class subsystem......Page 530
14.4.3  Schemas and instances......Page 532
14.4.4  Sanctioning and grammaticality......Page 533
14.5  Summary......Page 534
Further reading......Page 535
Exercises......Page 537
15 The conceptual basis of grammar......Page 540
15.1  The grammatical subsystem: encoding semantic structure......Page 541
15.2  Talmy’s ‘Conceptual Structuring System Model’......Page 542
15.2.1  The configuration of SPACE and TIME......Page 543
15.2.2  Conceptual alternativity......Page 544
15.2.3  Schematic systems......Page 545
15.2.4  The ‘Configurational Structure System’......Page 546
15.2.5  The ‘Attentional System’......Page 554
15.2.6  The ‘Perspectival System’......Page 556
15.2.7  The ‘Force-Dynamics System’......Page 559
15.3.1  The conceptual basis of word classes......Page 561
15.3.2  Attention......Page 563
15.3.3  Force-dynamics......Page 572
15.4  Categorisation and polysemy in grammar: the network conception......Page 573
15.5  Summary......Page 576
Further reading......Page 577
Exercises......Page 578
16 Cognitive Grammar: word classes......Page 581
16.1  Word classes: linguistic categorisation......Page 582
16.2  Nominal predications: nouns......Page 584
16.2.1  Bounding......Page 585
16.2.3  Expansibility and contractibility versus replicability......Page 587
16.2.4  Abstractions......Page 588
16.3  Nominal versus relational predications......Page 589
16.4  Temporal versus atemporal relations......Page 591
16.4.1  Temporal relations: verbs......Page 592
16.4.2  Atemporal relations......Page 593
16.4.3  Class schemas......Page 598
16.5.1  Determiners and quanitifers......Page 600
16.5.2  Grounding......Page 603
Further reading......Page 605
Exercises......Page 606
17 Cognitive Grammar: constructions......Page 609
17.1  Phrase structure......Page 610
17.1.1  Valence......Page 611
17.1.2  Correspondence......Page 612
17.1.4  Conceptual autonomy versus conceptual dependence......Page 613
17.1.6  The prototypical grammatical construction......Page 616
17.2  Word structure......Page 617
17.2.2  Semantic autonomy and dependence......Page 618
17.2.4  Composite structure......Page 619
17.2.5  Constructional schemas......Page 620
17.2.6  Grammatical morphemes and agreement......Page 621
17.3  Clauses......Page 622
17.3.1  Valence at the clause level......Page 623
17.3.2  Grammatical functions and transitivity......Page 629
17.3.3  Case......Page 634
17.3.4  Marked coding: the passive construction......Page 637
17.4  Summary......Page 638
Further reading......Page 639
Exercises......Page 640
18 Cognitive Grammar: tense, aspect, mood and voice......Page 643
18.1  English verbs: form and function......Page 644
18.2  The clausal head......Page 645
18.2.1  The passive construction: [be₂ [PERF₃ [V]]]......Page 648
18.2.3  The perfect construction: [have [PERF₄ [V]]]......Page 649
18.3  The grounding predication: mood and tense......Page 652
18.3.1  Mood......Page 653
18.3.2  Tense......Page 654
18.3.3  The epistemic model......Page 655
18.4.1  Situation types......Page 659
18.4.2  Perfective and imperfective PROCESSES......Page 660
18.4.3  Aspect and the count/mass distinction......Page 662
18.5  Summary......Page 665
Exercises......Page 666
19 Motivating a construction grammar......Page 669
19.1  Constructions versus ‘words and rules’......Page 670
19.2.1  Typology of idiomatic expressions......Page 671
19.2.2  Case study I: the let alone construction......Page 676
19.2.3  Case study II: the what’s X doing Y construction......Page 679
19.3.1  The Construction Grammar model......Page 681
19.3.2  Construction Grammar: a ‘broadly generative’ model......Page 687
19.3.3  Comparing Construction Grammar with Cognitive Grammar......Page 688
19.4  The ‘Generalisation Commitment’......Page 689
Further reading......Page 690
Exercises......Page 691
20 The architecture of construction grammars......Page 694
20.1.1  Assumptions......Page 695
20.1.2  Advantages of a constructional approach to verb argument structure......Page 697
20.1.3  The relationship between verbs and constructions......Page 699
20.1.4  Relationships between constructions......Page 708
20.1.5  Case studies......Page 712
20.2  Radical Construction Grammar......Page 720
20.2.3  Five key features of RCG......Page 721
20.3.1  Emphasis on language processing......Page 725
20.3.2  Analysis and simulation......Page 726
20.4  Comparing constructional approaches to grammar......Page 727
20.5  Summary......Page 729
Further reading......Page 730
Exercises......Page 731
21 Grammaticalisation......Page 735
21.1  The nature of grammaticalisation......Page 736
21.1.1  Form change......Page 738
21.1.2  Meaning change......Page 740
21.2  Metaphorical extension approaches......Page 742
21.2.1  Case Study: OBJECT-TO-SPACE......Page 746
21.2.2  Case study: SPACE-TO-POSSESSION......Page 747
21.3  Invited Inferencing Theory......Page 749
21.3.1  Case study: the evolution of must......Page 753
21.4  The subjectification approach......Page 756
21.4.2  Case study: the evolution of auxiliaries from verbs of motion or posture......Page 758
21.5  Comparison of the three approaches: be going to......Page 760
21.6  Summary......Page 761
Further reading......Page 762
Exercises......Page 764
22.1  Theories of grammar: assumptions, objectives, methodology......Page 769
22.1.2  Generative approaches to grammar......Page 771
22.1.3  Cognitive versus generative models......Page 780
22.1.4  Functional-typological approaches to grammar......Page 786
22.2.1  Word classes......Page 789
22.2.3  The status of tree diagrams......Page 791
22.2.4  Grammatical functions and case......Page 793
22.2.5  The verb string: tense, aspect and mood......Page 795
22.2.6  The passive construction......Page 797
Further reading......Page 799
Exercises......Page 801
Part IV: Conclusion......Page 803
23.1  Achievements......Page 805
23.2  Remaining challenges......Page 807
23.3  Summary......Page 810
List of  Tables......Page 811
List of Figures......Page 813
References......Page 820
Index......Page 840