Coastal Environments of India: A Coastal West Bengal Perspective

Preface
Acknowledgements
Contents
About the Author
Abbreviations
List of Figures
List of Tables
1 Physical Aspects and Coastal Features
	1.1 Coastal Features
	1.2 Beach
	1.3 Estuary
	1.4 Coastal Divisions
	1.5 West Bengal Coast
	1.6 South 24 Parganas Coastal Division
	1.7 Purba Medinipur Coastal Division
	1.8 Coastal Sectors
	1.9 Digha-Shankarpur Coastal Sector
	1.10 Bakkhali-Fraserganj Coastal Sector
	1.11 Ganga Sagar-Chuksar Island Coastal Sector
	1.12 Sunderbans Coastal Sector
	1.13 Geology
	1.14 Climate and Hydrology
	1.15 Coastal Processes
	1.16 Coastal Waters
	1.17 Wave Parameters
	1.18 Types of Breakers
	1.19 Beach Width and Beach Slope
	1.20 Coastal Sediment Components
	1.21 Lithogenic and Biogenic Components
	1.22 Source Rock
	1.23 Composition of Coastal Sediments
	1.24 Nature of Beach Materials
	1.25 Grain Size Analysis
	1.26 Trace Metals and Metal Oxides
	1.27 Sedimentary Structures
	1.28 Summary
	References
2 Coastal Geomorphology
	2.1 Coastal Geomorphic Characteristics
	2.2 Physiographic Set Up
	2.3 Coastline Configurations
	2.4 Sediment Transport and Shoreline Progradation
	2.5 Coastal Geomorphic Features
	2.6 Coastal Dunes
	2.7 Islands
	2.8 Creeks and Water Bodies
	2.9 Geomorphic Environments
	2.10 Mudflat Morphology
	2.11 Significance of Mudflat Morphology
	2.12 Bioturbation Structures
	2.13 Tidal Creek Systems
	2.14 Creek Morphology
	2.15 Sandy Beaches
	2.16 Depositional and Erosional Features
	2.17 Erosional Features
	2.18 Subsidence
	2.19 Depositional Features
	2.20 Tidal Shoal
	2.21 Marginal Point Bars
	2.22 Wash Over Flat
	2.23 Summary
	References
3 Coastal Environment—Case Studies
	3.1 Coastal Features of Kasaragod and Harnai
	3.2 Coastal Environments of Kasaragod
	3.3 Geology, Physiography, and Topography
	3.4 Climate
	3.5 Soil
	3.6 Micropaleontology of Sediment Samples
	3.7 Beach Morphology
	3.8 Sedimentary Structures
		3.8.1 Swash Marks
		3.8.2 Rhomboid Marks
		3.8.3 Current Crescents
		3.8.4 Rill Marks
	3.9 Bioturbation Structures
	3.10 Coastal Features of Harnai Beach, Konkan Coast, Maharashtra
	3.11 Physical Aspects
	3.12 Topography
	3.13 Features of a Cliffed Coastal Zone
	3.14 Perched Water Table
	3.15 Climate
	3.16 Tides
	3.17 Soils
	3.18 Beach Environment
	3.19 Breakers
	3.20 Embankments
	3.21 Beach Sedimentation
	3.22 Sediment Texture
	3.23 Summary
	References
4 Beach Environments
	4.1 Beach Features
	4.2 Beach Characteristics
	4.3 Bakkhali-Fraserganj Beach
		4.3.1 Evidence of Sea Level Rise
		4.3.2 Coastal Dunes
		4.3.3 Beach Areas
		4.3.4 Tidal Shoals
		4.3.5 Bedforms
		4.3.6 Beach Erosion
	4.4 Ganga Sagar Beach
		4.4.1 Beach Morphology
	4.5 Sedimentary Structures
		4.5.1 Backwash Ripple Marks
		4.5.2 Rhomboid Ripple Marks
		4.5.3 Megaripple Marks
		4.5.4 Lingoid Ripple Marks
		4.5.5 Interference Ripple Marks
		4.5.6 Polygonal Ripples
		4.5.7 Ladder Back Ripples
		4.5.8 Double Crested Ripples
		4.5.9 Cross Ripples/Tadpole Nests
		4.5.10 Straight Crested Small Ripples Marks
		4.5.11 Capped Off Ripples
		4.5.12 Ripple-Rill Complex
		4.5.13 Bedding Structures
	4.6 Digha Beach
	4.7 Substrate Soil and Sediments
	4.8 Textural Properties
	4.9 Summary
	References
5 Granulometry of Beach Sands
	5.1 Coastal Areas of Peninsular India
	5.2 Pattern of Cumulative Curves
	5.3 Sediment Texture
	5.4 Beach Sands of Digha and Talsari
		5.4.1 Grain Size Analyses
		5.4.2 Characteristics of Cumulative Curves
	5.5 Significance of Granulometry Analyses
	5.6 Summary
	References
6 Micropaleontology and Biogenic Resources
	6.1 Coastal Foraminifera
	6.2 Sorting of Foraminifera
	6.3 Assemblage of Foraminifera
	6.4 Micropaleontological and Biogenic Observations
	6.5 Benthic Molluscan Communities
	6.6 Physico-Chemical Environment
	6.7 Substrate Characteristics
	6.8 Habitat Selection
	6.9 Gastropod Mollusks
		6.9.1 Amalda Ampla
		6.9.2 Polinices Turridus
	6.10 Random Exploitation of Molluscan Shell
	6.11 Identified Mollusks from the Indian Coasts
	6.12 Kasaragod Beach, Kerala
	6.13 Puri Beach, Odisha
	6.14 Marina Beach, Chennai
	6.15 Bakkhali-Fraserganj Beach, West Bengal
	6.16 Summary
	References
7 Coastal Vegetation
	7.1 Coastal Vegetation Pattern
	7.2 Coastal Dune Vegetation
	7.3 Estuarine Mangroves Vegetation
	7.4 Mangroves Characteristics
	7.5 Mangroves Varieties
	7.6 Mangrove Zonation
	7.7 Determination of Correlation
	7.8 Analysis and Results
	7.9 Remarks
	7.10 Summary
	References
8 Climatic Hazards of the Coast
	8.1 Cyclonic Hazards
	8.2 Naming of Cyclones
	8.3 Tropical Cyclones—New List (2020)
	8.4 Causes for Cyclonic Hazards
	8.5 Cyclone Yaas
	8.6 Cyclone Tauktae
	8.7 Cyclone Burevi
	8.8 Cyclone Nivar
	8.9 Cyclone Nisarga
	8.10 Super Cyclone Amphan
		8.10.1 Scenario After Landfall Process
	8.11 Cyclone Bulbul
	8.12 Cyclone Aila
	8.13 Cyclone Sidr
	8.14 Cyclones, Hurricanes, and Typhoons
	8.15 Cyclonic Storms and Southwest Monsoon
	8.16 Monsoon in the City of Joy
	8.17 El Niño, La Niña, Southwest Monsoon, and Cyclonic Storms
	8.18 Summary
	References
9 Climate Change and Coastal Hazards in Sunderbans
	9.1 Impact of Climate Change
	9.2 Sea Level Rise
	9.3 Subsidence
	9.4 Sunderbans—Vulnerable to Climate Change
	9.5 Misconceptions on the Impact of Climate Change
	9.6 Projected Sea Level Rise
	9.7 Effects on Faunal Community
	9.8 Mitigating Measures of Drinking Waters
	9.9 Pseudo-Effects on Climate Change
	9.10 Changing Coastal Soil Profiles
	9.11 Mangrove Matters
	9.12 Mangroves of Sunderbans to Be Drowned by 2100
	9.13 Role of Coastal Mangroves for Climate Change Mitigation
	9.14 Managing Disaster in Sunderbans
	9.15 Summary
	References
10 Coastal Zone Management
	10.1 Coastal Zone
	10.2 Coastal Regulation Zone (CRZ)
	10.3 Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ)
	10.4 Coastal Engineering Structures
		10.4.1 Bulkhead
		10.4.2 Seawalls
		10.4.3 Revetments
		10.4.4 Groins
		10.4.5 Jetties and Brake Parts
		10.4.6 Breakpoints and Breakwaters
	10.5 Artificial Embankment and protection—A Case Study
		10.5.1 Laminar Sublayer and Roughness Height
		10.5.2 Spiral Motion
		10.5.3 Radial Velocity
	10.6 Measures for Bank Protection
	10.7 Managing Coastal Belt
	10.8 Significance of Coastal Zone Management
	10.9 Summary
	References
11 Coastal Tourism and Pollution
	11.1 Tourism Sectors
	11.2 Tourist Spots
		11.2.1 Digha
		11.2.2 New Digha
		11.2.3 Mandarmani
		11.2.4 Shankarpur
		11.2.5 Junput
		11.2.6 Ganga Sagar
		11.2.7 Bakkhali-Fraserganj
	11.3 Tourism in Sunderbans
		11.3.1 Gosaba—Sajnekhali—Neti Dhopani—Halliday Island
		11.3.2 Jatar Deul
		11.3.3 Bhagabatpur
	11.4 Transport and Communication
		11.4.1 Means of Communication in the Past
		11.4.2 Present Means of Communication
	11.5 Tourism in Trouble Amid Covid-19 Crisis
	11.6 Coastal Pollution
		11.6.1 Pollution of Coastal Waters
		11.6.2 Pollution in the Estuarine Waters of Sunderbans
		11.6.3 Polluting Agents in Coastal Waters
		11.6.4 Plastic
		11.6.5 Plastics to Be Banned for Nature’s Resilience
		11.6.6 Litters in the Coastal Zone
	11.7 Summary
	References