Closing the Knowledge-Implementation Gap in Conservation Science: Interdisciplinary Evidence Transfer Across Sectors and Spatiotemporal Scales

Acknowledgements
Contents
Part I: Introduction
	Chapter 1: The Knowledge-Implementation Gap in Conservation Science
		1.1 Introduction
			1.1.1 Overview of Research on the Knowledge-Implementation Gap in Conservation Science
			1.1.2 What Is in a Name: Terminologies
		1.2 Barriers to Knowledge Implementation
		1.3 Organizing and Structuring What We Are Learning About the Knowledge-Implementation Gap
			1.3.1 Narrowing the Knowledge-Implementation Gap at the Knowledge Production Stage
			1.3.2 Narrowing the Knowledge-Implementation Gap at the Knowledge Mediation Stage
			1.3.3 Understanding and Enabling Knowledge Implementation at the Action Stage
		1.4 Where to Go Next: Current Knowledge Gaps in Knowledge Implementation
		References
Part II: The Knowledge Production or Co-production
	Chapter 2: Biodiversity Monitoring and the Role of Scientists in the Twenty-first Century
		2.1 What Is Biomonitoring and Why Is It Important?
			2.1.1 The Importance of Scale in Biomonitoring
		2.2 Where Do Scientists Fit in Modern Biomonitoring?
		2.3 Challenges Associated with Biomonitoring That Widen the Knowledge-Implementation Gap
			2.3.1 Biases
			2.3.2 Technical Capacity and Data Needs
			2.3.3 Funding
			2.3.4 Institutional Support
		2.4 Successes in Bridging the Gap
			2.4.1 Indicators, Data, and Databases: Global Initiatives to Monitor Biodiversity
			2.4.2 Biodiversity Observation Networks
			2.4.3 Businesses and Biomonitoring
			2.4.4 Commonalities Between Initiatives
		2.5 Concluding Remarks and Recommendations
		References
	Chapter 3: Closing the Conservation Genetics Gap: Integrating Genetic Knowledge in Conservation Management to Ensure Evolution...
		3.1 Introduction
		3.2 The Development of a New Discipline: Conservation Genetics
		3.3 The Conservation Genetics Gap
			3.3.1 The Conservation Genetics Gap at the International and National Policy Level
			3.3.2 What About Recommendations for Conservation Action in Scientific Articles?
			3.3.3 The Conservation Genetics Gap Between Science and Management
		3.4 Barriers to Integration of Genetics in Conservation Management and Policy
			3.4.1 Lack of Genetic Knowledge Among Managers
			3.4.2 Lack of Platforms for Knowledge Transfer and Communication
			3.4.3 Lack of Clarity of Policy
			3.4.4 Perceived Lack of Applicability of Conservation Genetic Research
			3.4.5 Misalignment Between Priorities for Management Versus Research
			3.4.6 Lack of Access to Scientific Publications
			3.4.7 Lack of Practical Decision-Support Tools for Conservation Managers
			3.4.8 Lack of Strategic Funding for Cross-Sectorial Efforts
		3.5 Opportunities to Close the Conservation Genetics Gap
			3.5.1 Platforms for Continuous Knowledge Exchange and Science-Management Exchanges
			3.5.2 Scientists Become More Involved in Practical Conservation and Policy
			3.5.3 Knowledge on Genetics Increases Among Managers
			3.5.4 Collaboration Between Scientists and Managers in Conservation Research
			3.5.5 Institutional and Financial Support Systems
			3.5.6 Accessibility of Conservation Genetic Knowledge and Data
			3.5.7 Guidelines and Decision-Support Tools
		3.6 Case Study 1: Framing Management for Baltic Sea Species by Understanding Their Evolutionary Potential
		3.7 Case Study 2: A Genetic Assessment Framework for Plant Conservation
		3.8 Conclusions
		References
	Chapter 4: Publicly Generated Data: The Role of Citizen Science for Knowledge Production, Action, and Public Engagement
		4.1 Introduction: What Is Citizen Science?
		4.2 Why Citizen Science?
		4.3 How Is Knowledge Generated in Citizen Science?
		4.4 How Can Citizen Science Enhance Knowledge to Action?
		4.5 Citizen Science in Action
			4.5.1 eBird
				4.5.1.1 Stakeholder: Scientists
				4.5.1.2 Stakeholder: Government/Decision Makers
				4.5.1.3 Stakeholder: Individual Data Users
			4.5.2 Flint Water Crisis
				4.5.2.1 Stakeholder: Community Members
				4.5.2.2 Stakeholder: Policy Makers
			4.5.3 Locally-Based Monitoring in the Philippines
				4.5.3.1 Stakeholder: Managers and Staff
				4.5.3.2 Stakeholder: Community Members
				4.5.3.3 Stakeholder: Policy Makers
			4.5.4 Biodiversity in Southern Africa
				4.5.4.1 Stakeholder: Scientists
				4.5.4.2 Stakeholder: Policy Makers
		4.6 Next Steps
		4.7 Conclusion
		References
	Chapter 5: Recognition of Indigenous Ecological Knowledge Systems in Conservation and Their Role to Narrow the Knowledge-Imple...
		5.1 Introduction
			5.1.1 Africa
			5.1.2 Asia
			5.1.3 Australia
			5.1.4 South America
			5.1.5 North America
			5.1.6 Aotearoa, New Zealand
			5.1.7 Europe
		5.2 Summary and Conclusions
		References
Part III: The Knowledge Mediation Sphere
	Chapter 6: The Knowledge Network: Identifying Actors and Structural Dimensions of Knowledge Transfer
		6.1 Introduction
		6.2 Theoretical and Conceptual Underpinnings of Knowledge and Scale in Conservation Science
			6.2.1 The Case for Socially Embedded Knowledge in Conservation Science
			6.2.2 Scale and Cross-Scale Linkages in Conservation Science
			6.2.3 Knowledge Networks in Conservation Science
			6.2.4 Bridging Organizations in Conservation Science
		6.3 Comparing Three Cases of Knowledge Transfer in the U.S. Intermountain West: Managing Noxious Weed Species, Grizzly Bear Co...
			6.3.1 Data Collection
			6.3.2 Invasive Species in the Crown of the Continent
				6.3.2.1 Knowledge
				6.3.2.2 Scale
				6.3.2.3 Networks
				6.3.2.4 Bridging Organizations
			6.3.3 Grizzly Bear Conservation
				6.3.3.1 Knowledge
				6.3.3.2 Scale
				6.3.3.3 Networks
				6.3.3.4 Bridging Organizations
			6.3.4 Climate Adaptation
				6.3.4.1 Knowledge
				6.3.4.2 Scale
				6.3.4.3 Networks
				6.3.4.4 Bridging Organizations
			6.3.5 Summary of the Case Studies
		6.4 Conclusion
		References
	Chapter 7: Communication: The Bridge Between Knowledge and Implementation
		7.1 Introduction
		7.2 If Not You, Then  Who?
		7.3 The First Two Steps to Communicating
			7.3.1 Who Is Your Audience?
			7.3.2 Know Your Goal
		7.4 Difficult Audiences
		7.5 Stop Talking, Learn to Listen
		7.6 Best Practices in Science Communication
			7.6.1 Developing Listening and Empathy Through Improvisation and Connection
			7.6.2 Shaping Your Goal
			7.6.3 Engage Your Audience
			7.6.4 Build Connections
			7.6.5 Get Them to Care
			7.6.6 Get to the Point
			7.6.7 Keep It Simple
			7.6.8 Beware of the Curse of Knowledge
			7.6.9 Make it Memorable
		7.7 The Power of Stories
		7.8 Listen and Practice
			7.8.1 Listen
			7.8.2 Practice
		7.9 Bridging the Knowledge-Implementation Gap
		References
	Chapter 8: Making an Impact: How to Design Relevant and Usable Decision Support Systems for Conservation
		8.1 Introduction
		8.2 The Use of Decision Support Systems Beyond Conservation
		8.3 Using Decision Support Systems in Conservation
			8.3.1 Examples of Successful Decision Support Systems
				8.3.1.1 Tool: Conservation Evidence (https://www.conservationevidence.com/)
				8.3.1.2 Tool: Toolkit for Ecosystem Services Site-Based Assessment (TESSA)
				8.3.1.3 Tool: Ape Seizure Database
				8.3.1.4 Tool: Protected Planet https://protectedplanet.net/
				8.3.1.5 Tool: Online Reporting System http://ors.ngo/
				8.3.1.6 Tool: The Cool Farm Tool (https://coolfarmtool.org/coolfarmtool/)
		8.4 Barriers for Uptake of Decision Support Systems in Conservation
		8.5 Designing Usable, Impactful Systems: Tips for Good Participatory Design
		8.6 Using Decision Support Systems for Uncertain, `Wicked´ Problems
		8.7 Concluding Remarks
		References
Part IV: The Knowledge-Action Outcome(s)
	Chapter 9: The Use of Boundary-Spanning Organizations to Bridge the Knowledge-Action Gap in North America
		9.1 Introduction
		9.2 Boundary-Spanning Organizations as Knowledge Action Actors
		9.3 Meeting the Challenges
		9.4 Case Studies
			9.4.1 Migratory Species Joint Ventures
			9.4.2 Consultation on Areas Voluntarily Designated for Conservation
			9.4.3 Climate Adaptation Science Centers
			9.4.4 Fire Science Exchange Network
			9.4.5 The Puget Sound Partnership
			9.4.6 Chicago Wilderness
			9.4.7 Scientific Advisors to Habitat Conservation Plans
		9.5 Discussion
		9.6 Conclusions
		References
	Chapter 10: Progress and Gaps in Biodiversity Data Mainstreaming and Knowledge Transfer for Conservation in South America
		10.1 Introduction
			10.1.1 The Knowledge-Implementation Continuum in South America
			10.1.2 Structure of the Chapter
		10.2 Interactions, Synergies, and Gaps in the Information Flow Between Data and Decisions
			10.2.1 The Knowledge Demand Side
			10.2.2 The Knowledge Supply Agents
			10.2.3 Efficiency and Gaps of Current Knowledge Mobilization Structures in South America
		10.3 An Overview of the Region as Captured by an Analysis of the NBSAPs to the Convention on Biological Diversity
			10.3.1 Knowledge Production
			10.3.2 Knowledge Transfer
			10.3.3 Conservation Action
			10.3.4 What and Where Are the Gaps from Knowledge to Conservation Action?
		10.4 Initiatives Contributing to Narrow the Knowledge-Implementation Gap in the Region
			10.4.1 Biodiversity Observation Networks: The Global Initiative
				10.4.1.1 The Bolivian Biodiversity Observation Network
			10.4.2 Red Listing of Species and Ecosystems: Advances and Challenges
		10.5 Challenges and Recommendations to Bridging the Biodiversity Data Mainstreaming Gaps in South America
		References
	Chapter 11: Conservation Science in Africa: Mainstreaming Biodiversity Information into Policy and Decision-Making
		11.1 Introduction: The Need for Biodiversity Data in Africa
		11.2 Challenges Blocking Data Collection and Use
			11.2.1 Availability of Data
			11.2.2 Usability and Quality of Data
			11.2.3 Willingness to Collect, Use, and Share Data
			11.2.4 Capacity
		11.3 Case Studies
			11.3.1 Planning for Protected Areas and Conservation Action
			11.3.2 Monitoring Projects, Programs, and Sites
			11.3.3 Overlooked Species: Taxonomic and Geographic Data Gaps
			11.3.4 National and Regional Mainstreaming of Data
			11.3.5 Main Lessons Identified from Case Studies
		11.4 Solutions to Enhance Evidence-Based Decision-Making in Africa
			11.4.1 Using the Latest Technologies, Methods, and Tools to Access and Share Data
			11.4.2 Building Capacity for Data Collection and Use
			11.4.3 Working Together in Partnership to Improve the Science-Policy Interface
		11.5 Conclusions
		References
	Chapter 12: The Marine Conservation Landscape in Europe: Knowledge Support to Policy Implementation and Conservation Action
		12.1 Biodiversity in Europe: Relevance, Instruments for Governance and Knowledge Base
			12.1.1 European Policy Initiatives and Legal Framework Related to the Conservation of the Marine Environment
			12.1.2 The Scientific and Research Landscape in Europe
		12.2 The Knowledge-Implementation Pipeline in Europe
		12.3 The Knowledge Production-Implementation Flow in Marine Conservation in Europe
			12.3.1 The Knowledge Production Component
			12.3.2 Knowledge Storage and Sharing: Scientific Publications
			12.3.3 Knowledge Storage and Sharing: Platforms and Initiatives
			12.3.4 Knowledge Mobilization
			12.3.5 Knowledge Translation and Use
				12.3.5.1 Case Study 1: Integrating Knowledge from Scientific Community, Regional/European Bodies, Stakeholders and Internation...
					EU Legislation
					Regional Sea Conventions
					Multilateral Environmental Agreements
					Other Relevant European and International Bodies
					Research
					Platforms for Data Collection and Sharing Information
				12.3.5.2 Case Study 2: Scientific Knowledge to Inform Policy Priorities: Food from the Oceans Initiative
				12.3.5.3 Case Study 3: International Network on Alien Species for Research and Support to Policy: EASIN
				12.3.5.4 Case Study 4: Knowledge Collection from an Emergent Industry Sector to Support Policy Development: The Algae Industry...
		12.4 Conclusions
		References
	Chapter 13: Translating Research into Wildlife Conservation Actions Through Multi-sector Collaboration in Tropical Asia
		13.1 Introduction: Asia in Context
		13.2 Research-Action Partnerships and the Need for Multi-sector Collaboration
			13.2.1 Asia´s Universities
			13.2.2 Government Services
			13.2.3 International Research Organizations
			13.2.4 Nongovernment Organizations
			13.2.5 Private Sector
			13.2.6 Building Multi-sector Teams that Complement Capacities
		13.3 Knowledge Production in Asia
			13.3.1 Sources of Conservation Knowledge in Tropical Asia
			13.3.2 Future Directions for Research and Funding
		13.4 Knowledge Mobilization and Conservation Actions: Asian Case Studies
			13.4.1 Category 1: Protected Lands and Species
				13.4.1.1 Establishing Protected Areas
				13.4.1.2 Engaging Local Communities in the Protection of Endangered Species
			13.4.2 Category 2: Natural Areas with Limited Resource Use
				13.4.2.1 Engaging Ecotourism Stakeholders in Conservation Actions
			13.4.3 Category 3: Production Areas and Captive Breeding
				13.4.3.1 Obstacles to Knowledge Transfer in the Conservation of Traditional High-Diversity Agricultural Landscapes
				13.4.3.2 The Role of Knowledge Transfer in the Success of Ecological Engineering
				13.4.3.3 Knowledge Transfer and Captive Breeding
			13.4.4 Some Common Features of Successful Conservation Projects
		13.5 Conclusions
		References
	Chapter 14: Environmental Knowledge Exchange in Australia and Oceania: How Researchers and Practitioners Are Working Together ...
		14.1 Introduction
			14.1.1 Oceania and Its Diversity
			14.1.2 The Impetus for Evidence-Informed Decision-Making in Oceania
			14.1.3 Current Approaches to Bridging the Gap Between Scientists and Practitioners
			14.1.4 Concepts and Definitions
		14.2 Knowledge Exchange that Benefits Terrestrial and Freshwater Ecosystems in Melanesia, Micronesia, and Polynesia
		14.3 Knowledge Exchange in Oceania´s Marine and Coastal Ecosystems
		14.4 Knowledge Exchange Practices Supporting Biodiversity Conservation in Australia and New Zealand
			14.4.1 Landcare, Natural Resource Management and the Development of Capacity Building Activities in Regional Australia
			14.4.2 Threatened Species and Threat Abatement
			14.4.3 Regional, Landscape and Protected Area Approaches to Evidence-Informed Management in Australia
			14.4.4 Water Reform and Freshwater Ecological Systems
		14.5 What Works?: Effective Processes for Knowledge Exchange in Oceania
		14.6 Where Is Improvement Required?
			14.6.1 Advocacy
			14.6.2 Education
			14.6.3 Publications
			14.6.4 Learning with and from Practitioners and Implementers
			14.6.5 Evaluation
		14.7 Conclusions
		References
Part V: Synthesis
	Chapter 15: Closing the Gap Between Knowledge and Implementation in Conservation Science: Concluding Remarks
		15.1 Valuable Lessons Learned
			15.1.1 The Importance of Multi- and Interdisciplinary Knowledge Sources and Co-production
			15.1.2 Improving Science Communication and Spatial-Temporal Connectivity of Various Societal Groups for Evidence-Informed Deci...
			15.1.3 A Global Review of the Knowledge-Implementation Gap
		15.2 What´s Left to Uncover?
			15.2.1 The Critical Contribution of Social Sciences to Closing the Knowledge-Implementation Gap
			15.2.2 Information Flow Analysis for a Better Understanding of Social Structure and Knowledge Transfer in Local Communities
			15.2.3 Trade-Offs Between Environmental and Socio-Economic Development Goals Impact Conservation Implementation
				15.2.3.1 Trade-off Between Conservation Impact and Livelihoods of Local Communities
				15.2.3.2 Social Equity
				15.2.3.3 Gender
		15.3 Ways Forward
		References