Clinical Handbook of ADHD Assessment and Treatment Across the Lifespan (Autism and Child Psychopathology Series)

Contents
About the Editor
1: ADHD in Culturally and Linguistically Diverse Children
	1.1 Establishing an Ecological Perspective on ADHD
	1.2 Sociocultural Risk Factors at the Child Level
	1.3 Sociocultural Risk Factors at the Microsystem
	1.4 Exosystem-Level Risk Factors
	1.5 Macrolevel Risk Factors
	1.6 Methodological and Conceptual Challenges in Studying ADHD Among Culturally and Linguistically Diverse Children
	1.7 Concluding Remarks
	References
2: Gender Differences in Adults with ADHD
	2.1 ADHD in Adulthood
		2.1.1 Presentation of Adult ADHD
		2.1.2 Impairments in Adult ADHD
	2.2 Gender Differences in ADHD
		2.2.1 Theories of Gender Differences in ADHD
		2.2.2 Gender Differences in ADHD Presentation
	2.3 Symptoms and Impairments Among Women with ADHD
		2.3.1 Social Difficulties, Romantic Relationships, and Motherhood
		2.3.2 Emotion Dysregulation
		2.3.3 Self-Esteem and Internalizing Problems
		2.3.4 Sexual Behaviors
	2.4 Assessment and Diagnosis of Adult ADHD
		2.4.1 Self-Report and Retrospective Recall of Symptoms
		2.4.2 Symptoms Relevant to Adult ADHD
	2.5 Treatment
		2.5.1 Medication Treatment
			2.5.1.1 Stimulant Misuse
			2.5.1.2 Pharmacotherapy and Women with ADHD
		2.5.2 Psychosocial Interventions
	2.6 Future Directions
		2.6.1 Expanding Knowledge of Adult ADHD Beyond 25 -Year-Old White Men
		2.6.2 ADHD in the Transgender, Non-Binary, and Gender Non-Conforming Population
	2.7 Conclusion
	References
3: Autonomic Nervous System Functioning in ADHD
	3.1 Introduction
	3.2 Arousal and the Autonomic Nervous System
		3.2.1 Structural Components of the Autonomic Nervous System
		3.2.2 Indices of Autonomic Nervous System Functioning in Humans
		3.2.3 The Role of the Autonomic Nervous System in Cognition and Self-Regulation
		3.2.4 Development of the Autonomic Nervous System in Humans
	3.3 Theoretical Models of Autonomic Nervous System Dysfunction in ADHD
	3.4 Evidence of Dysregulation of the Autonomic Nervous System in ADHD
		3.4.1 Salivary Alpha-Amylase and Cortisol
		3.4.2 Peripheral Indices of Autonomic Nervous System Functioning
			3.4.2.1 Evidence from Systematic Reviews and Meta-analysis
			3.4.2.2 Evidence from Recent Studies on Cardiovascular Measures and Electrodermal Activity
				Resting State
				Cognitive Tasks and Reward Processing
				Socioemotional Tasks
			3.4.2.3 Evidence from Recent Studies on Pupil Size
		3.4.3 Functioning of the Enteric Nervous System and the Gut-Brain Axis in ADHD
		3.4.4 Summary of Studies Investigating Autonomic Functioning in ADHD
	3.5 Autonomic Dysregulation and Co-occurring Psychiatric Symptoms in ADHD
		3.5.1 Oppositional Defiant Disorder and Conduct Disorder
		3.5.2 Autism Spectrum Disorder
		3.5.3 Mood Disorder and Emotional Dysregulation
		3.5.4 Sluggish-Cognitive Tempo
	3.6 Effects of Pharmacological and Nonpharmacological Interventions for ADHD on Autonomic Nervous System Functioning
	3.7 Implications and Future Directions
		3.7.1 Theoretical Models of ADHD
		3.7.2 Implications for Clinical Practice
		3.7.3 Open Questions for Future Research
	3.8 Conclusions
	References
4: Effects of Alertness and Inhibitory Control on Adults with ADHD
	4.1 Introduction
	4.2 Everyday Life Experiences of Difficulties with Alertness and Inhibitory Control
	4.3 Behavioural Evidence of Difficulties Associated with Alertness and Inhibitory Control
	4.4 Cognitive Evidence of Difficulties Associated with Alertness and Inhibitory Control
	4.5 Theoretical Perspectives on Alertness and Inhibitory Control
	4.6 Neurobiological Evidence of Alertness and Inhibitory Control
	4.7 Targeted Therapies for Alertness and Inhibitory Control
	4.8 Conclusion
	References
5: Executive Functions and Emotional Lability in Adults with ADHD
	5.1 ADHD
	5.2 Comorbidity
	5.3 Executive Functions and ADHD
	5.4 Emotional Dysregulation and ADHD
	5.5 Additive Effect of Executive Function Deficits and Emotion Dysregulation in ADHD
	5.6 Assessment and Treatment of ADHD and Related Difficulties in EF and ED
		5.6.1 Cognitive EF Assessment: Cold and Hot Neuropsychological Measures
		5.6.2 Behavioral EF Assessment: Behavioral Rating Scales
	5.7 Assessment of Emotional Dysregulation Symptoms
	5.8 Treatment
		5.8.1 Executive Functioning
		5.8.2 Emotional Dysregulation
	References
6: Cognitive Event-Related Potentials and ADHD Across the Lifespan
	6.1 Introduction
	6.2 Event-Related Potentials (ERPs)
	6.3 ERPs as Putative Neurophysiological Markers for ADHD
	6.4 ADHD and ERPs Usefulness
		6.4.1 Earlier ERPs
			6.4.1.1 P50
				Children and Adolescents
				Adults
			6.4.1.2 P100
				Children and Adolescents
				Adults
			6.4.1.3 N100
				Children and Adolescents
				Adults
			6.4.1.4 Error-Related Negativity (ERN/Ne)
				Children and Adolescents
				Adults
			6.4.1.5 P200
				P200 in Children/Adolescents
				Children and Adolescents
				Adults
			6.4.1.6 Mismatch Negativity (MMN)
				Children and Adolescents
				Adults
			6.4.1.7 N200
				Children and Adolescents
				Adults
		6.4.2 Later Cognitive Event-Related Potential
			6.4.2.1 P300
				Children and Adolescents
				Adults
			6.4.2.2 Contingent Negative Variation (CNV)
				Children and Adolescents
				Adults
	6.5 ERP Putative Biomarkers and Brain Maturation Across Lifespan
	6.6 Final Remarks
	References
7: Adult Persons with ADHD and Their Lifestyle
	7.1 Introduction
	7.2 Living with ADHD
		7.2.1 Cognitive Impairments Limit Daily Life
		7.2.2 Lifestyle Factors
			7.2.2.1 Drug Use and Poor Diet
			7.2.2.2 Alcohol and Drug Abuse
		7.2.3 Major Morbidity with Both Physical and Mental Illness
		7.2.4 Problems with Social Relationships and Loneliness
		7.2.5 Deteriorated Quality of Life
		7.2.6 Combined Treatments Are Needed
	7.3 Lifestyle Interventions Are Important to Improve Life Situation
		7.3.1 Experiences of Lifestyle Interventions
			7.3.1.1 Social Support and Motivation Are Needed
		7.3.2 Need for More Health-Promoting Lifestyle Interventions for Persons with ADHD
			7.3.2.1 Interpersonal Relationships Affect Health
		7.3.3 A Nurse-Led Lifestyle Intervention
			7.3.3.1 The Theoretical Basis of the Intervention
				Interpersonal Relationships
				Health Education and Health Information
				Individual Support
				Social and Practical Support
	7.4 Conclusion
	References
8: Teacher Knowledge of ADHD in Children
	8.1 Introduction
	8.2 Impact of ADHD in the Classroom
	8.3 Importance of the Teacher´s Role for Children with ADHD
	8.4 Teacher Knowledge
	8.5 Consequences of Poor Teacher Knowledge
	8.6 How Is Teacher Knowledge of ADHD Measured?
	8.7 The Extent of Teacher Knowledge
		8.7.1 Teacher Knowledge in the Middle East
		8.7.2 Teacher Knowledge in the United Kingdom (UK)
		8.7.3 Teacher Knowledge in Australia
	8.8 Factors that Affect Teacher Knowledge
	8.9 Conclusion and Future Recommendations
	References
9: Environmental Risk Factors for Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder
	9.1 Introduction
	9.2 Prenatal Risk Factors for ADHD
		9.2.1 Maternal Mental Health
			9.2.1.1 Maternal Distress
		9.2.2 Maternal Physical Health
			9.2.2.1 Maternal Nutrition
			9.2.2.2 Gestational Anemia
			9.2.2.3 Pre-pregnancy Maternal BMI and Obesity
			9.2.2.4 Hypertensive Disorders and Preeclampsia
			9.2.2.5 Maternal Diabetes
		9.2.3 Maternal Medication and Substance Use
			9.2.3.1 Antidepressants and Other Neuropsychiatric Medications
			9.2.3.2 Caffeine, Alcohol, and Smoking
			9.2.3.3 Opioids, Cocaine, and Methamphetamine
			9.2.3.4 Polysubstance Use
		9.2.4 Maternal Exposure to Environmental Toxins
			9.2.4.1 Lead
			9.2.4.2 Mercury
			9.2.4.3 Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCBs)
			9.2.4.4 Air Pollution and Other Commonly Encountered Toxins
	9.3 Perinatal and Childbirth-Related Factors
		9.3.1 Parental Age at Childbirth
		9.3.2 Prematurity and Low Birth Weight
		9.3.3 Method of Delivery and Labor Induction
		9.3.4 Postnatal Factors
			9.3.4.1 Exposure to Environmental Toxins
			9.3.4.2 Psychosocial Factors
			9.3.4.3 Nutrition
	9.4 Gene-Environment Interaction
	9.5 Protective Factors
	9.6 Summary and Future Considerations
	References
10: ADHD and Sleep Problems
	10.1 Sleep and ADHD
		10.1.1 What Is Sleep and How Does It Work?
		10.1.2 What Do We Know About Sleep in Individuals with ADHD?
		10.1.3 Are There Any Differences in the Circadian Rhythm of Individuals with ADHD?
		10.1.4 What Can We Conclude About Sleep in Individuals with ADHD?
		10.1.5 What Is the Impact of Poor Sleep?
	10.2 Assessment of Sleep
		10.2.1 What Are the Most Common Assessment Tools?
		10.2.2 What Is the Suggested Approach to the Assessment of Sleep?
			10.2.2.1 Step 1: Screening
			10.2.2.2 Step 2: Clinical Assessment
			10.2.2.3 Step 3 (If Required): Sleep Specialist Assessment
			10.2.2.4 Step 4: Monitoring and Follow-Up
		10.2.3 What Considerations Need to Be Made for Individuals with ADHD?
	10.3 Sleep Disorders and Treatment
		10.3.1 Insomnia
			10.3.1.1 What Is Insomnia Disorder, Its Prevalence, Etiology, and Impacts?
			10.3.1.2 How Is Insomnia Disorder Assessed and Treated?
			10.3.1.3 What About the Treatment of Insomnia in Individuals with ADHD?
		10.3.2 Delayed Sleep-Wake Phase Disorder (DSWPD)
			10.3.2.1 What Is DSWPD, Its Prevalence, Etiology, and Impacts?
			10.3.2.2 How Is DSWPD Assessed and Treated?
			10.3.2.3 What About Treatment of DSWPD in Individuals with ADHD?
		10.3.3 Restless Legs Syndrome, Periodic Limb Movements in Sleep, and Periodic Limb Movement Disorder
			10.3.3.1 What Are Restless Leg Syndrome and Periodic Limb Movement Disorder, Their Prevalence, Etiology, and Impacts?
			10.3.3.2 How Are RLS and PLMD Assessed and Treated?
			10.3.3.3 What About the Treatment of RLS and PLMD in Individuals with ADHD?
		10.3.4 ADHD and Other Sleep Disorders
			10.3.4.1 Obstructive Sleep Apnea
			10.3.4.2 Narcolepsy
	10.4 Case Study
	10.5 Conclusions
	References
11: ADHD Symptom Malingering and Nonmedical Drug Use in Adults
	11.1 Introduction
	11.2 ADHD Base Rate and Longitudinal Trends
		11.2.1 Malingering
		11.2.2 Detection of Malingering in ADHD Assessment
		11.2.3 Implications of ADHD Malingering Assessment for Clinical Practice
	11.3 ADHD and Substance Use
		11.3.1 ADHD and the Risk of Substance Use Behavior and Substance Use Disorder
		11.3.2 Non-medical Use of Prescription Stimulants
	11.4 Harm Reduction Interventions
		11.4.1 Implications for Future Research and Clinical Interventions
	References
12: ADHD and Risk-Taking Behavior: Associations, Mechanisms, and Interventions
	12.1 Section 1: Risk-Taking Behavior
		12.1.1 Definition
			12.1.1.1 Economic Theories
		12.1.2 Measures
			12.1.2.1 Risk-Taking in Experimental Gambling Tasks
				Explicit Tasks
				Implicit Tasks
			12.1.2.2 Measuring Real-Life RTB Via Questionnaires
				Specific Behaviors Questionnaires
				Domain-Specific, Multi, and General Questionnaires
				Risk-Taking in a Clinical Population
			12.1.2.3 Choice-Dilemma Problems
			12.1.2.4 Virtual Reality Tools
			12.1.2.5 Registries
	12.2 Section 2: The Link Between ADHD and Risk-Taking Behavior
		12.2.1 Substance Use
		12.2.2 Sexual Risk-Taking Behavior
		12.2.3 Driving-Related Risk-Taking Behavior
		12.2.4 Gambling
		12.2.5 Financial Risk-Taking Behavior
		12.2.6 Eating/Lifestyle
		12.2.7 Delinquency/Aggression
		12.2.8 Injuries/Premature Death
		12.2.9 Experimental Studies on ADHD and Risk-Taking Behavior
	12.3 Section 3: Explaining the Link Between ADHD and Risk-Taking Behavior
		12.3.1 Sociodemographic Variables
			12.3.1.1 Gender/Sex
			12.3.1.2 Age
		12.3.2 Clinical
			12.3.2.1 ADHD Presentation
			12.3.2.2 Comorbidity
			12.3.2.3 Academic Achievement
			12.3.2.4 Self-Medication
		12.3.3 Social
			12.3.3.1 Parental Monitoring/Knowledge
			12.3.3.2 Mother-Child Relationship
			12.3.3.3 Social Impairment and Peer Influence
		12.3.4 Personality and Emotion
			12.3.4.1 Impulsivity Facets
			12.3.4.2 Emotion and Mood Regulation
		12.3.5 Cognitive
			12.3.5.1 Executive Functions
			12.3.5.2 Delay Discounting/Aversion
			12.3.5.3 Risk Attitude Versus Suboptimal Decision-Making
			12.3.5.4 Perceived Risk and Benefit
		12.3.6 Biology
			12.3.6.1 Genetics
			12.3.6.2 Evolutionary
			12.3.6.3 Neural
	12.4 Section 4: Interventions
		12.4.1 Medication
		12.4.2 Intervening in Specific Comorbid RTB
		12.4.3 Interventions Based on Within-Person Mechanisms That Contribute to RTB
			12.4.3.1 Weak Response Inhibition
			12.4.3.2 Poor Emotion Regulation
			12.4.3.3 Delay Aversion and Steep Delay Discounting
			12.4.3.4 Benefit Perception
		12.4.4 Interventions That Focus on Adolescent-Environment Interactions
			12.4.4.1 Adolescent-Parent Interactions
			12.4.4.2 Peer Influence and Feedback
			12.4.4.3 Contextual Cues
		12.4.5 Opportunities for Current Technology in RTB Interventions for Adolescents
			12.4.5.1 Virtual Reality
	12.5 Conclusions
	References
13: Conduct Disorder in ADHD
	13.1 Introduction
	13.2 Definition
	13.3 Epidemiology
		13.3.1 Epidemiology of CD
		13.3.2 Epidemiology of ADHD and Coexisting CD
	13.4 Mechanisms/Pathophysiology
		13.4.1 Development on the Basis of ADHD
		13.4.2 Early Onset Versus Late Onset CD
	13.5 Etiopathogenesis
		13.5.1 Environmental Risk Factors
		13.5.2 Genetic Factors
		13.5.3 Gene-Environment Interactions
		13.5.4 Brain Mechanisms
			13.5.4.1 Structural Neuroimaging
			13.5.4.2 Functional Neuroimaging
		13.5.5 Stress, ADHD, and CD
		13.5.6 Temperament
	13.6 Diagnosis
		13.6.1 Critical Issues in Diagnosis
	13.7 Screening
	13.8 Prevention
	13.9 Management
		13.9.1 Behavioral Interventions
			13.9.1.1 Behavioral Interventions During Early to Middle Childhood
			13.9.1.2 Behavioral Interventions During Late Childhood and Adolescence
		13.9.2 Special Education and Juvenile Justice or Detention System
		13.9.3 Psychopharmacological Treatments
	13.10 Prognosis
	13.11 Conclusion
	References
14: ADHD and Depression
	14.1 The DSM-5-TR Diagnostic Criteria for Depressive Disorders
		14.1.1 Differences in the Clinical Presentation of MDD and ADHD
		14.1.2 Etiological and Prognostic Differences
		14.1.3 Differences in Cognitive Functioning
	14.2 Psychodiagnostic Assessment Recommendations
		14.2.1 Context Is Key
	14.3 Suggested Assessment Tools
		14.3.1 General Testing Considerations and Conclusions
	14.4 Explanations for the Co-Occurrence of ADHD and Depression
		14.4.1 Shared Etiology Theory
		14.4.2 Social and Environmental Factors
	14.5 Protective Factors
		14.5.1 Cognitive Thinking Styles
		14.5.2 Treatment Access
	14.6 Treatment Recommendations
		14.6.1 Psychopharmacology
		14.6.2 Psychosocial Treatments
		14.6.3 Academic and ADHD-Focused Interventions
	14.7 Parental Interventions
	14.8 Case Study
	14.9 Future Directions
	References
15: Comorbid Diagnosis of ASD and ADHD: Assessment and Treatment Considerations
	15.1 Diagnostic Criteria
		15.1.1 ASD
		15.1.2 ADHD
	15.2 Comorbid ASD and ADHD
		15.2.1 Prevalence Rates and Clinical Profile
		15.2.2 Shared Risk Factors
			15.2.2.1 Genetic and Biological
			15.2.2.2 Environmental
		15.2.3 Symptom Impact and Overlap
			15.2.3.1 Attention/Executive Functioning
			15.2.3.2 Social Cognition and Social Interaction
		15.2.4 Diagnostic Assessment Process
			15.2.4.1 Assessment Considerations
			15.2.4.2 Assessment Tools
			15.2.4.3 Assessment Challenges and Differential Diagnosis
		15.2.5 Treatment Options
			15.2.5.1 Pharmacological Interventions
			15.2.5.2 Behaviorally Based Interventions
	15.3 Conclusion
	References
16: Measuring Impulsivity and Its Underlying Features in ADHD
	16.1 Introduction
	16.2 Impulsivity Questionnaires and Rating Scales
		16.2.1 Self-Reported Questionnaires of Impulsivity
			16.2.1.1 The Barratt Impulsiveness Scale
			16.2.1.2 The UPPS-P Model
		16.2.2 ADHD Rating Scales with Regard to Impulsivity
			16.2.2.1 Patient/Observer Rating Scales
			16.2.2.2 Clinical Interviews
		16.2.3 Conclusion: Impulsivity Questionnaires and Rating Scales
	16.3 Behavioral Tests of Impulsivity
		16.3.1 Response Inhibition Tests
			16.3.1.1 Inhibition of Prepotent Actions: Go/NoGo and Continuous Performance Tests
			16.3.1.2 Inhibition of Ongoing Actions: Stop-Signal Task
			16.3.1.3 Interference Control Tasks
			16.3.1.4 Does Inhibition Performance Reflect Inhibition Deficits in ADHD?
		16.3.2 Reward Processing: Delay and Probability Discounting
		16.3.3 Conclusion: Impulsivity Behavioral Measures
	16.4 Neurophysiological Measures
		16.4.1 Autonomous Nervous System-Based Measures
		16.4.2 Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation
		16.4.3 Eye Blink Rate
		16.4.4 Conclusion: Neurophysiological Impulsivity Measures
	16.5 Conclusions
	References
17: School-Based Interventions and Accommodations for ADHD
	17.1 School-Based Interventions and Accommodations for ADHD
	17.2 School-Based Interventions for Students with ADHD
		17.2.1 Homework, Organization, and Planning Skills (HOPS) Intervention
		17.2.2 Completing Homework by Improving Efficiency and Focus (CHIEF)
		17.2.3 Challenging Horizons Program (CHP)
		17.2.4 Students Taking Responsibility and Initiative Through Peer Enhanced Support (STRIPES)
		17.2.5 Collaborative Life Skills (CLS)
		17.2.6 Moderators of Efficacy
	17.3 Educational Accommodations for Students with ADHD
		17.3.1 Common Accommodations for ADHD
		17.3.2 What Makes an Accommodation Appropriate?
		17.3.3 Research on Accommodation Effects
		17.3.4 Recommendations for Individual Accommodation Decisions
	17.4 Conclusions
	References
18: Assessment of Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder in Children and Adolescents
	18.1 Introduction
	18.2 ADHD Symptom Presentation
	18.3 Occurrence and Sociodemographic Variables
	18.4 Etiology
		18.4.1 Brain Function and Structure
		18.4.2 Genetics
		18.4.3 Environmental Factors
		18.4.4 Gene X Environment Interaction
	18.5 Comorbidities and Prevalence
		18.5.1 Evidence-Based Assessments
		18.5.2 Unstructured Interviews
		18.5.3 Diagnostic Interviews
		18.5.4 ADHD Child Evaluation
		18.5.5 Kiddie-Schedule for Affective Disorders and Schizophrenia for School-Aged Children-Present and Lifetime Version DSM-5 (...
		18.5.6 The Anxiety Disorders Interview Schedule for DSM-IV Child and Parent Version
		18.5.7 National Institute of Mental Health Diagnostic Interview Schedule for Children Version IV (NIMH DISC-IV)
		18.5.8 Young Diagnostic Interview for ADHD-5
		18.5.9 Questionnaires
		18.5.10 The Conners´ Rating Scales-3rd Edition
		18.5.11 National Institute for Children´s Health Quality (NICHQ) Vanderbilt Assessment Scale
		18.5.12 ADHD Rating Scale-IV
		18.5.13 The Child Behavior Checklist 6-18 (CBCL 6-18) and Related Questionnaires
		18.5.14 Behavior Assessment Scale for Children (BASC)
	18.6 Neuropsychological Measures
		18.6.1 Neuropsychological Tests
		18.6.2 Executive Functioning Questionnaires
			18.6.2.1 Behavior Rating Inventory of Executive Function
		18.6.3 Barkley Deficits in Executive Functioning Scale-Children and Adolescents
		18.6.4 Brown Executive Functioning/Attention Scales (BROWN EF/A)
		18.6.5 Childhood Executive Functioning Inventory (CHEXI)
		18.6.6 Continuous Performance Tests
			18.6.6.1 Conners´ Continuous Performance Test-Third Edition
		18.6.7 Test of Variables of Attention
	18.7 Case Conceptualization
	18.8 ADHD and Other Neurodevelopmental Disorders
		18.8.1 Autism Spectrum Disorder
		18.8.2 Intellectual Developmental Disorder (Intellectual Disability)
	18.9 Differential Diagnoses
		18.9.1 Autism Spectrum Disorder
		18.9.2 Intellectual Developmental Disorder (Intellectual Disability)
		18.9.3 Specific Learning Disorder
		18.9.4 Disruptive Behavior Disorders
		18.9.5 Mood Disorders
		18.9.6 Anxiety and Trauma-Related Disorders
	18.10 Summary
	References
19: Self-Report Measures for Assessing ADHD in Adults
	19.1 Descriptions of Self-Report Measures for ADHD Assessment in Adults
		19.1.1 ADHD Symptom Checklists
		19.1.2 Broader ADHD Symptom Inventories
		19.1.3 Measures of ADHD-Related Impairment
		19.1.4 Measures of Executive Functioning
		19.1.5 An Additional Facet for Assessment: Quality of Life
	19.2 Reliability of Self-Report Measures for Adult ADHD
		19.2.1 ASRS
		19.2.2 CAARS
		19.2.3 WURS
		19.2.4 BAARS-IV
		19.2.5 BADDS
		19.2.6 WFIRS
		19.2.7 BFIS
		19.2.8 AAQoL
	19.3 A Word of Caution: Malingering
	19.4 Conclusion
	References
20: Social Relationships of Individuals with ADHD Across the Lifespan
	20.1 What Is the Nature of the Social Relationship Difficulties of Individuals with ADHD?
		20.1.1 Peer Status
		20.1.2 Friendship
			20.1.2.1 Children
			20.1.2.2 Adolescents and Adults
		20.1.3 Bullying
			20.1.3.1 Children and Adolescents
			20.1.3.2 Adults
		20.1.4 Romantic Relationships
		20.1.5 Summary and Implications for Future Research
	20.2 Why Do Individuals with ADHD Have Challenges with Social Relationships?
		20.2.1 Symptoms of ADHD, Externalizing, and Internalizing Behavior Disorders
		20.2.2 Social Skills/Prosocial Behaviors
		20.2.3 Social Cognition
		20.2.4 Emotion Dysregulation (ED)
		20.2.5 Within-Child Protective Factors
		20.2.6 Parent and Teacher Behaviors as Risk and Protective Factors
		20.2.7 Summary and Implications for Future Research
	20.3 What Are the Perspectives of Individuals with ADHD on Their Social Relationships?
		20.3.1 Research Comparing Individuals With and Without ADHD
		20.3.2 Subjective Experience
		20.3.3 Summary and Implications for Future Research
	20.4 What Is the Efficacy of Interventions Designed to Improve Social Functioning?
		20.4.1 Social Skills Training (SST)
		20.4.2 Psychosocial Interventions for Adolescents and Adults
		20.4.3 Psychopharmacological Interventions
		20.4.4 Summary and Implications for Future Research
	20.5 Conclusion
	References
21: Group Parent-Child ADHD Treatments
	21.1 Behavioral Treatments
		21.1.1 Behavioral Parent Training
	21.2 Evaluating Components
	21.3 Effectiveness and Efficacy
	21.4 Factors Impacting Treatment Outcomes
	21.5 Adaptations and Modifications
	21.6 Behavioral Peer Interventions (BPI)
		21.6.1 Summer Treatment Program
			21.6.1.1 Evaluating Components
			21.6.1.2 Effectiveness and Efficacy
			21.6.1.3 Factors Impacting Treatment Outcomes
			21.6.1.4 Cultural Adaptations
			21.6.1.5 Adaptations and Modifications
	21.7 Parenting Treatments
	21.8 Non-specific Treatments Used for ADHD
		21.8.1 Parent-Child Interaction Therapy
			21.8.1.1 Treatment Components and Techniques
	21.9 Evaluating Components
	21.10 Treatments Showing Initial Feasibility
		21.10.1 Managing Frustration for Children
		21.10.2 Supporting Caregivers of Children with ADHD
		21.10.3 Regulating Emotions Like an eXpert (RELAX)
		21.10.4 Summary
	References
22: Physical Exercise to Treat ADHD
	22.1 Introduction
	22.2 Aerobic Exercise and ADHD
		22.2.1 Aerobic Exercise and the Brain
		22.2.2 Aerobic Exercise and Individuals with ADHD
		22.2.3 Aerobic Exercise and Brain Activity Studies
			22.2.3.1 Acute Effects
			22.2.3.2 Chronic Effects
		22.2.4 Aerobic Exercise and Cognitive Performance Measures
			22.2.4.1 Acute Effects
			22.2.4.2 Chronic Effects
		22.2.5 Aerobic Exercise Intensity and Time
		22.2.6 Age and Aerobic Exercise
		22.2.7 Physical Fitness Levels and ADHD Symptoms
		22.2.8 Sports as APA
	22.3 Anaerobic Exercise and ADHD
		22.3.1 The Relationship Between Anaerobic Exercise and ADHD
			22.3.1.1 Acute Effects of Anaerobic Exercise
			22.3.1.2 Chronic Effects of Anaerobic Exercise
		22.3.2 Practical Application
	22.4 Martial Arts and ADHD
		22.4.1 Mindful Movement Martial Arts and ADHD
		22.4.2 Aikido and Mindful Movement in Relation to ADHD
		22.4.3 Qigong and ADHD
		22.4.4 Tai Chi and ADHD
		22.4.5 Taekwondo (TKD) and ADHD
	22.5 Yoga and ADHD
	22.6 Conclusion
	References
23: Telemedicine to Manage ADHD
	23.1 Telemedicine for Assessment of ADHD
	23.2 Telemedicine for Pharmacological Consultation and Medication Management of ADHD
	23.3 Telemedicine for Psychosocial or Behavioral Interventions for ADHD
		23.3.1 Interventions for Children and Adolescents
		23.3.2 Interventions for Adults
	23.4 Telemedicine for Combined Pharmacological and Behavioral Interventions for ADHD
	23.5 Summary of the Existing Telemedicine Literature for Managing ADHD
	23.6 Gaps in Our Knowledge and Recommendations for Future Research
		23.6.1 Telemedicine for Adult ADHD
		23.6.2 Assessment of ADHD Via Telemedicine
		23.6.3 Factors That May Impact Efficacy of Telemedicine
	23.7 Recommendations and Considerations for Practitioners Implementing Telemedicine for Managing ADHD
	23.8 Conclusions
	References
24: Cognitive Behavior Therapy for Adults with ADHD
	24.1 Cognitive Behavior Therapy: Theory, Research Support, and Application to ADHD
		24.1.1 Rationale: Why CBT for ADHD?
		24.1.2 Limits of Medication
		24.1.3 Cognitions
		24.1.4 Chronic Nature of ADHD
		24.1.5 Psychoeducation
		24.1.6 Research Evidence
			24.1.6.1 Individual Therapy
			24.1.6.2 Group Therapy
			24.1.6.3 Combined Approaches
	24.2 CBT for Adults with ADHD: Key Treatment Components
		24.2.1 Psychoeducation
		24.2.2 Behavioral Strategies
			24.2.2.1 Calendars and Planners
			24.2.2.2 Task Lists
			24.2.2.3 Breaking Down Tasks
			24.2.2.4 Focusing and Managing Distractibility
			24.2.2.5 Prioritization Techniques
			24.2.2.6 Cues, Prompts, and Reminders
		24.2.3 Cognitive Strategies
			24.2.3.1 Socratic Questioning
			24.2.3.2 Identifying and Categorizing Unhelpful Thoughts
			24.2.3.3 Thought Records
			24.2.3.4 Connections to Behavioral Techniques
		24.2.4 Enhancing Insight and Self-Awareness
	24.3 Conclusions
	References
25: Mindfulness Interventions for ADHD
	25.1 Care Crisis in ADHD Treatment
	25.2 What Is Mindfulness? What Is Mindfulness Training?
	25.3 Targeted Mindfulness Training for People with ADHD
	25.4 Mechanisms of Effect in Mindfulness Training for People with ADHD
	25.5 Summary
	References
26: Medications for Children and Adolescents with ADHD
	26.1 Treatment Overview
	26.2 Drug Patterns
	26.3 Factors Effecting Outcomes
	26.4 Side Effects of Medications
	26.5 Practical Considerations
	26.6 Treatment Effectiveness
	26.7 Combined Treatments
	26.8 Final Remarks
	References
Index