Climate Change and Legumes: Stress Mitigation for Sustainability and Food Security

Cover
Half Title
Title Page
Copyright Page
Contents
Preface
Editor Bio
Contributors
1. Legume Plants in the Context of Global Climate Change: Challenges and Scopes for Environmental Sustainability
	1.1 Introduction
	1.2 Global Climate Change: Evidence and Patterns across Continents
		1.2.1 Evidence of Global Climate Change
		1.2.2 Continental Patterns of Global Climate Change
			1.2.2.1 Climate Change in Asia
			1.2.2.2 Climate Change in Africa
			1.2.2.3 Climate Change in Europe
			1.2.2.4 Climate Change in Australia
			1.2.2.5 Climate Change in North America
			1.2.2.6 Climate Change in Central and South America
	1.3 Impact of Climate Change on Crop Production
		1.3.1 Impacts on Variety, Species, and Functional Types
		1.3.2 Trends in Crop Production
	1.4 Legumes and Biological Nitrogen Fixation
		1.4.1 Taxonomic Description of Legumes
		1.4.2 Nodulation and Biological Nitrogen Fixation
	1.5 Climate-Induced Stresses on Legumes
		1.5.1 Effects of Drought Stress
		1.5.2 Effects of Heat Stress
		1.5.3 Effects of Salinity
	1.6 Benefits of Legumes for Environmental Sustainability
		1.6.1 Role of Legumes in Mitigating Global Warming
		1.6.2 Role of Legumes in Improving Soil Fertility
		1.6.3 Role of Legumes in Soil Moisture Retention
		1.6.4 Role of Legumes in Weed, Pest, and Disease Control
		1.6.5 Role of Legumes in Reclaiming Degraded Soils
		1.6.6 Role of Legumes in Enhancing Biodiversity and Ecosystem Stability
	1.7 Conclusion and Future Perspectives
	References
2. Diversity in Legume Genetic Resources for Adaptation to Climate Stress
	2.1 Introduction
	2.2 Implications for Plants' Response to Climate Change
	2.3 Legume Genetic Resources
	2.4 Preservation of Seeds in Medium- and Long-Term Collections
	2.5 Legume Production Sustainability and Climate Change
	2.6 The Effect of Climate Change on Product Yield and Genetic Approaches
	2.7 Conclusions and Perspectives
	References
3. Diversity and Distribution of Legumes in Pakistan
	3.1 Introduction
	3.2 Geographic Distribution of Plants
	3.3 Distribution of Legumes in Pakistan
	3.4 Genetic Diversity
	3.5 Taxonomy, Distribution, and Uses of Legumes in Pakistan
		3.5.1 Papilionoideae
		3.5.2 Mimosoideae
		3.5.3 Caesalpinoideae
	3.6 Status of Legume Genebank
	3.7 Conclusion
	References
4. Legume Inoculants Using Rhizobia Strains Effective to Reduce Nitrous Oxide Emissions
	4.1 Introduction
		4.1.1 Biological Fixation of Atmospheric Nitrogen
		4.1.2 Nitrous Oxide
		4.1.3 Sources of Nitrous Oxide Emissions
			4.1.3.1 Nitrification
			4.1.3.2 Denitrification
	4.2 Agriculture and Nitrous Oxide
	4.3 Nitrogen Use Efficiency
	4.4 The Legumes
	4.5 The Rhizobia
	4.6 The Rhizobia-Legume Symbiosis
	4.7 Nitrous Oxide Emission by Legume Nodules
		4.7.1 Nitrous Oxide Emission by Nodules of Soybean (Glycine max)
		4.7.2 Nitrous Oxide Emission by Nodules of Alfalfa (Medicago sativa)
		4.7.3 Nitrous Oxide Emission by Nodules of Common Beans (Phaseolus vulgaris)
		4.7.4 N2O Emission by Other Rhizobia
		4.7.5 Measuring N2O Production by Nodules
		4.7.6 Perspectives and Strategies to Mitigate N2O Production by Nodules
	Acknowledgments
	References
5. Proteomics: Aim at Stress Mitigation in Soybean under Flooding
	5.1 Introduction
	5.2 Proteomics for Flooding Response Mechanism in Soybean
	5.3 Proteomics of Soybean with Application of Chemicals for Flooding Tolerance
		5.3.1 Plant-Derived Smoke Treatment
		5.3.2 Abscisic Acid Treatment
		5.3.3 Nanoparticle Treatment
		5.3.4 Calcium Application
		5.3.5 Other Applications
	5.4 Proteomics Using Generated Flood-Tolerant Soybean Lines/Varieties
		5.4.1 Soybean Varieties with Flooding Tolerance
		5.4.2 Mutant Soybean with Flooding Tolerance
		5.4.3 Transgenic Soybean Overexpressed Flood-Response Gene
	5.5 Conclusion and Future Prospective
	References
6. Impact of High Temperature Stress and Its Alleviation in Fabaceae
	6.1 Introduction
	6.2 Heat Stress and Its General Effects on Plants
	6.3 Production Loss in Legumes due to Heat Stress
	6.4 Comparison of the Family Fabaceae with Poaceae against Heat Stress
	6.5 Alleviation of Heat Stress
	6.6 Conclusion
	References
7. Genetic Improvement for Development of a Climate Resilient Food Legume Crops: Relevance of cowpea breeding approach in improvement of food legume crops for future
	7.1 Introduction
	7.2 The Importance of Legumes in Meeting Food and Nutrition Security
	7.3 Performance of Food Legumes under Drought and Heat Stress
		7.3.1 Drought and Heat Stress at Flowering and Pod Formation of Legumes
	7.4 Environmental Resources Utilization by Legumes
		7.4.1 Soil Environment
		7.4.2 Water Use of Legumes
		7.4.3 Effect of Photoperiod
	7.5 Consequences of Drought and Heat Stress on Productivity of Legumes
	7.6 Mechanisms of Drought and Heat Stress Tolerance
		7.6.1 Escape (Drought Avoidance)
		7.6.2 Dehydration and Heat Avoidance
		7.6.3 Tolerance to Drought and Heat (Dehydration Tolerators)
			7.6.3.1 Morphological Adaptation
			7.6.3.2 Physiological Adaptation
			7.6.3.3 Molecular and Biochemical Adaptation
	7.7 Breeding Approaches for Combating Drought and Heat Stress
		7.7.1 Physiological Breeding Approach
		7.7.2 DNA Marker-Assisted Selection
	7.8 Legume Floral Traits and Early Maturity
		7.8.1 Genetics of Early Maturity in Food Legume Crops
		7.8.2 Genetics of Drought and Heat Tolerance in Food Legumes
	7.9 Seed Traits and Grain Quality
	7.10 Breeding for Resistance to Bacterial, Fungal, and Viral Diseases
	7.11 Breeding for Resistance to Nematodes
	7.12 Breeding for Resistance to Insect Pests and Parasitic Weeds
	References
8. Innovations in Agronomic Management for Adaptation to Climate Change in Legume Cultivation
	8.1 Introduction
	8.2 Climate Change
	8.3 Plant Breeding and Genetic Approaches
	8.4 Planting Date - A Factor for Crop Production
	8.5 Plant Population
	8.6 Biodiversity for Agricultural Sustainability
	8.7 Choice of Crop - A Vital Issue for Eco-friendly Cultivation
	8.8 Crop Rotation and Cover Crops
	8.9 Intercropping
	8.10 Cover Crops
	8.11 Soil Tillage
	8.12 Fertilizing and Irrigation
	8.13 Conclusions
	References
9. Sustainable Amelioration Options and Strategies for Salinity-Impacted Agricultural Soils
	9.1 Introduction
	9.2 Strategies for Mitigating Salt Stress
		9.2.1 Agronomic Practices
			9.2.1.1 Irrigation
			9.2.1.2 Crop Rotation
			9.2.1.3 Use of Grafting
			9.2.1.4 Use of Priming Techniques
		9.2.2 Biological Methods
			9.2.2.1 Use of Salt-Tolerant Crops and Transgenics
			9.2.2.2 Remediation by Using Microorganisms
			9.2.2.3 Phytoremediation of Salt-Affected Soil
		9.2.3 Amendments by Inorganic Fertilizers
			9.2.3.1 Application of Lime
			9.2.3.2 Amelioration by Gypsum Addition
			9.2.3.3 By Using Zinc-Fertilizers
			9.2.3.4 Integrated Plant Nutrient Supplies
		9.2.4 Organic Amendments
			9.2.4.1 Use of Biochars and Composts to Remediate Saline-Sodic Soil
			9.2.4.2 Use of Peat
			9.2.4.3 Furfural Residues
		9.2.5 Effects of Bio-organic Amendments on Saline Soils
		9.2.6 Combined Use of Gypsum and Bio-organic Amendments
	9.3 Global Climate Change and Salinity: A Case Study of Reclamation and Adaptations
	9.4 Conclusion
	References
10. Microbial Populations and Soil Fertility in the Coastal Lands of India
	10.1 Introduction
	10.2 Land Degradation by Salinity
	10.3 Distribution and Occurrence of Coastal Land in India
	10.4 Crop Production Constraints in Coastal Soils
	10.5 Effect of Soil Salinity on Plants
	10.6 Salt Tolerance in Halophytes
	10.7 Soil Fertility of the Coastal Soils of India
	10.8 Soil Microbial Community Structure in Coastal Soil
		10.8.1 Plant-Microbe Interaction in the Coastal Ecosystem
		10.8.2 Salt-Tolerant Plant Growth-Promoting Rhizobacteria (PGPR)
	10.9 Conclusions
	Acknowledgments
	References
11. Strategic Solutions and Futuristic Challenges for the Cultivation of Food Legumes in India
	11.1 Introduction
	11.2 Challenges Identified for the Cultivation of Legumes
	11.3 Desired Strategic Solution
		11.3.1 Resource Use Efficient Technologies
		11.3.2 Promotion of Efficient Water Management Technologies
		11.3.3 Shifting of Pulses in Niche Areas
		11.3.4 Crop Improvement Strategies
			11.3.4.1 Non-lodging, Input Responsive, Short-Duration Pulse Cultivars
			11.3.4.2 Breeding Abiotic and Biotic Stress Tolerance Cultivars
			11.3.4.3 Added Breeding Approaches
			11.3.4.4 Inclusion of Speed Breeding
			11.3.4.5 Pre-breeding
			11.3.4.6 Hybrid Breeding
			11.3.4.7 Genomics-Assisted Breeding
			11.3.4.8 Genomic Resources
			11.3.4.9 Candidate Genes and Trait Discovery
			11.3.4.10 Virus-Induced Gene Silencing
			11.3.4.11 CRISPR/Cas9 Induced Genome Editing
	11.4 Conclusion
	References
12. Climate-Induced Droughts and Its Implications for Legume Crops
	12.1 Introduction
		12.1.1 Drought and Desertification
		12.1.2 Types of Drought
			12.1.2.1 Meteorological Drought
			12.1.2.2 Agricultural Drought
			12.1.2.3 Hydrological Drought
			12.1.2.4 Socioeconomic Drought
		12.1.3 Links between Drought Severity and Climate Change
		12.1.4 Causes of Droughts
			12.1.4.1 Lack of Rainfall or Precipitation
			12.1.4.2 Anthropogenic Causes
			12.1.4.3 Drying Out of Surface Water Flow
			12.1.4.4 Climate Change and Global Warming
			12.1.4.5 Inappropriate Farming Practices
		12.1.5 Major Drought Prone Areas of the World
			12.1.5.1 Drought Prone Areas in Africa
			12.1.5.2 Drought Prone Areas in Asia
			12.1.5.3 Drought Severity in Australia
			12.1.5.4 Drought Severity in Europe
			12.1.5.5 Drought Severity in South America
			12.1.5.6 Drought Severity in North America
		12.1.6 Impacts of Drought on Agriculture
	12.2 Legumes and Their Origin
		12.2.1 Global Production of Legumes
	12.3 Drought Effects on Legume Crops
		12.3.1 Seed Germination and Growth Reduction
		12.3.2 Root Growth
		12.3.3 Leaf Traits
		12.3.4 Plant Height
	12.4 Yield Reductions in Legumes
	12.5 Recommendations for Better Water Use
	12.6 Conclusion
	References
13. Implication of Climate Change on the Productivity of Legumes
	13.1 Introduction
	13.2 Consequence of High Temperature and CO2
	13.3 Pattern of Climate Change
	13.4 Yield Constraints in Major Grain Legumes
		13.4.1 Photothermosensitivity
		13.4.2 Drought
		13.4.3 High Temperature
	13.5 Effect of High Temperature on Reproductive and Seed Development in Pulses
	13.6 Effect of Combined Stresses of Drought and Heat
	13.7 Water-Use Efficiency, Canopy Temperature, and Transpiration under Drought and Heat
	13.8 Response of Major Food Legumes to Climate Change
		13.8.1 Cool Season Legumes
			13.8.1.1 Chickpea
			13.8.1.2 Lentil
		13.8.2 Warm Season Legumes
			13.8.2.1 Greengram or Mungbean
			13.8.2.2 Blackgram or Urdbean
			13.8.2.3 Pigeonpea
	13.9 Climate Smart Food Legumes
	13.10 Phenotyping of Grain Legumes
		13.10.1 Thermal Imaging
		13.10.2 Identification of Stable High-Yielding Genotypes
		13.10.3 Photosynthesis and Chlorophyll Fluorescence
		13.10.4 Membrane Stability
		13.10.5 Acquired Thermotolerance
		13.10.6 Expression of Heat Shock Protein
		13.10.7 Specific Leaf Area (SLA), Chlorophyll, and Water-Use Efficiency (WUE)
		13.10.8 Sucrose Synthase Activity
		13.10.9 Pollen Viability and Germination
	13.11 Phenotyping for Drought and Heat Tolerance
		13.11.1 Oxidative Stress
		13.11.2 Combined Effects of Drought and Heat
		13.11.3 Stem Remobilization and Respiration
		13.11.4 Root Traits for Combined Tolerance to Heat and Drought
		13.11.5 Relevance of Combined Tolerance to Heat and Drought in Pulses
		13.11.6 Strategies to Improve Yield under the Changing Scenario of Climate
			13.11.6.1 Identification of Cultivars with Wider Adaptability
			13.11.6.2 Osmotic Adjustment
			13.11.6.3 Modification of Crop Duration and Phenology with High Biomass
	13.12 Traits Intogression for Combined Tolerance
		13.12.1 Use of Wild Accessions
		13.12.2 Sources of Heat-Tolerant Genotypes in Pulses
		13.12.3 Genomic and Transgenic Approaches
		13.12.4 Genes for Drought Tolerance in Pulses
		13.12.5 Transgenic Approach
		13.12.6 Signaling and Drought Stress Tolerance
		13.12.7 Molecular Markers for Adaptive Traits
		13.12.8 Genomics Approaches for Stress Tolerance
		13.12.9 Conventional and Omics-Based Breeding for Stress Tolerance
	13.13 Conclusions
	References
Index