Climate Change 2007 - Mitigation of Climate Change: Working Group III contribution to the Fourth Assessment Report of the IPCC (Climate Change 2007)

Cover......Page 1
Half-title......Page 3
Title......Page 5
Copyright......Page 6
Contents......Page 7
Foreword......Page 9
Preface......Page 11
Summary for Policymakers......Page 13
Table of Contents......Page 14
B. Greenhouse gas emission trends......Page 15
C. Mitigation in the short and medium term (until 2030)......Page 21
D. Mitigation in the long term (after 2030)......Page 27
E. Policies, measures and instruments to mitigate climate change......Page 31
F. Sustainable development and climate change mitigation......Page 33
G. Gaps in knowledge......Page 34
Technical Summary......Page 37
Table of contents......Page 38
Past, present and future: emission trends......Page 39
International response......Page 43
Sustainable development:......Page 44
Climate change mitigation and sustainable development......Page 45
Decision-making, risk and uncertainty......Page 46
Distributional and equity aspects......Page 47
Technology research, development, deployment, diffusion and transfer......Page 48
Baseline scenario emissions (all gases and sectors)......Page 49
Stabilization scenarios......Page 50
Mitigation and adaptation in the light of climate change impacts and decision-making under uncertainties......Page 53
Linkages between short term and long term......Page 54
Status of the sector and development until 2030......Page 55
Description and assessment of mitigation technologies and practices, options, potentials and costs in the electricity generation sector......Page 56
Technology research, development, diffusion and transfer......Page 59
Status and development of the sector......Page 60
Description and assessment of mitigation technologies and practices, options, potentials and costs......Page 61
Road traffic: efficient technologies and alternative fuels......Page 62
Overall mitigation potential in the transport sector......Page 63
Integrated and non-climate policies affecting emissions of GHGs and co-benefits of GHG mitigation policies......Page 64
Mitigation potential of the building sector......Page 65
Mitigation potential of the building sector......Page 67
Effectiveness of and experience with policies for reducing CO2 emissions from energy use in buildings......Page 68
Status of the sector, development trends and implications......Page 70
Emission trends (global and regional)......Page 71
Effectiveness of and experience with climate policies, potentials, barriers and opportunities/ implementation issues......Page 73
Technology research, development, deployment, diffusion and transfer......Page 74
Emission trends......Page 75
Mitigation technologies, practices, options, potentials and costs......Page 76
Interactions of mitigation options with vulnerability and adaptation......Page 77
Long-term outlook......Page 78
Emission sources and sinks; trends......Page 79
Description and assessment of mitigation technologies and practices, options and potentials, costs and sustainability......Page 80
Regional modelling assessments......Page 81
Forests and Sustainable Development......Page 82
Status of the sector, development trends and implications......Page 83
Emission trends......Page 84
Description and assessment of mitigation technologies and practices, options and potentials, costs and sustainability......Page 85
Effectiveness of and experience with climate policies, potentials, barriers and opportunities/implementation issues......Page 86
Technology research, development and diffusion......Page 87
Mitigation options across sectors......Page 88
Mitigation costs across sectors and macro-economic costs......Page 91
Spill-over effects from mitigation in Annex I countries on Non-Annex I countries......Page 92
Relationship between sustainable development and climate change mitigation......Page 93
Implications of development choices for climate change mitigation......Page 94
Implications of mitigation choices for sustainable development trajectories......Page 95
National policy instruments, their implementation and interactions......Page 99
International agreements (climate change agreements and other arrangements)......Page 101
Regime stringency: linking goals, participation and timing......Page 102
Non-climate policies and links to sustainable development......Page 103
Links between climate change and other policies......Page 104
Studies of costs and potentials......Page 105
1 Introduction......Page 107
Table of Contents......Page 108
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY......Page 109
1.2.2 What is dangerous interference with the climate system?......Page 111
1.2.3.1 Sustainable development......Page 112
1.2.3.4 Uncertainty and risk......Page 113
1.3.1 Review of the last three decades......Page 114
1.3.1.2 Intensities......Page 119
1.3.2.2 CO2 emissions......Page 121
1.3.2.3 Non- CO2 gases......Page 122
1.3.2.4 Total GHG emissions......Page 123
1.4.1 UNFCCC and its Kyoto Protocol......Page 124
1.4.2 Technology cooperation and transfer......Page 125
1.5.2 Roadmap......Page 126
REFERENCES......Page 127
2 Framing Issues......Page 129
Table of Contents......Page 130
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY......Page 131
2.1.3 The dual relationship between climate change and Sustainable Development......Page 133
2.1.4 The Sustainable Development concept......Page 134
2.1.5 Development paradigms......Page 135
2.1.6 International frameworks for evaluating Sustainable Development and climate change links......Page 136
2.1.7 Implementation of Sustainable Development and climate change policies......Page 137
2.2.3 Irreversibility and the implications for decision-making......Page 139
2.2.5 Sequential decision-making......Page 140
2.2.6 Dealing with risks and uncertainty in decision-making......Page 141
2.2.7 Decision support tools......Page 142
2.3.1 How are risk and uncertainty communicated in this report?......Page 143
2.3.2 Typologies of risk and uncertainty......Page 144
2.4.1 Definitions......Page 146
2.4.2.1 Discount rates......Page 148
2.4.2.3 Transaction and implementation costs......Page 150
2.4.3 Mitigation potentials and related costs......Page 151
2.4.3.1 Definitions of barriers, opportunities and potentials......Page 152
2.5.1 Integrating mitigation and adaptation in a development context – adaptive and mitigative capacities......Page 153
2.6 Distributional and equity aspects......Page 154
2.6.1 Development opportunities and equity......Page 155
2.6.3 Alternative approaches to social justice......Page 156
2.6.4 Equity consequences of different policy instruments......Page 157
2.7 Technology......Page 159
2.7.1 Technology and climate change......Page 160
2.7.1.1 Technological change in no-climate policy (reference) scenarios......Page 161
2.7.1.3 Technological change and the costs of achieving climate targets......Page 162
2.7.2.1 The sources of technological change......Page 164
2.7.2.2 Development and commercialization: drivers, barriers and opportunities......Page 167
2.7.2.3 The public-sector role in technological change......Page 168
2.7.3 The international dimension in technology development and deployment: technology transfer......Page 170
2.8 Regional dimensions......Page 172
REFERENCES......Page 173
3 Issues related to mitigation in the long-term context......Page 181
Table of Contents......Page 182
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY......Page 183
3.1.1.2 Narrative storylines and modelling......Page 186
3.1.2 Introduction to mitigation and stabilization scenarios......Page 187
3.1.4 Economic growth and convergence......Page 188
3.1.5 Development pathways and GHG emissions......Page 189
3.2.1 Drivers of emissions......Page 190
3.2.1.1 Population projections......Page 191
3.2.1.4 The use of MER in economic and emissions scenarios modelling......Page 192
3.2.1.5 Energy use......Page 195
3.2.1.6 Land-use change and land-use management......Page 196
3.2.2.1 CO2 emissions from energy and industry......Page 198
3.2.2.2 Anthropogenic land emissions and sequestration......Page 200
3.2.2.3 Non-CO2 greenhouse gas emissions......Page 201
Sulphur dioxide emission scenarios......Page 202
NOx emission scenarios......Page 204
Emission scenarios for black and organic carbon......Page 205
3.3.2 Definition of a stabilization target......Page 206
3.3.3 How to define substitution among gases......Page 207
3.3.4 Emission pathways......Page 208
3.3.5.1 Emission reductions and timing......Page 209
3.3.5.2 GHG abatement measures......Page 212
3.3.5.3 Stabilization costs......Page 215
3.3.5.4 The role of non-CO2 GHGs......Page 218
3.3.5.5 Land use......Page 219
3.3.5.6 Air pollutants, including co-benefits......Page 225
3.3.6 Characteristics of regional and national mitigation scenarios......Page 226
3.3.6.1 Costs of mitigation in regional and country scenarios......Page 229
3.4 The role of technologies in long-term mitigation and stabilization: research, development, deployment, diffusion and transfer......Page 230
3.4.1.1 Decarbonization trends......Page 231
3.4.1.2 Key factors for carbon-free energy and decarbonization development......Page 233
3.4.3.1 Summary from the TAR......Page 234
3.4.3.2 Dynamics of technology......Page 235
3.4.3.4 Dynamics in developing countries and timing of technology deployment......Page 236
3.5.1.2 Qualitative insights into interactions between mitigaton, adaptation and development......Page 237
3.5.2 Linking emission scenarios to changes in global mean temperature, impacts and key vulnerabilities......Page 239
3.5.3.1 Scenario and sensitivity analysis of climate targets......Page 241
3.5.3.3 Cost-benefi t analysis, damage cost estimates and social costs of carbon......Page 243
3.6 Links between short-term emissions trends, envisaged policies and longterm climate policy targets......Page 245
3.6.1.1 Influence of passing from concentration targets to temperature targets in a cost-effectiveness framework......Page 246
3.6.2.1 Studies reporting short-term sectoral reduction levels......Page 247
3.6.2.2 Assessment of reduction levels at different marginal prices......Page 249
Economy-wide reduction levels......Page 250
Sectoral estimates......Page 251
REFERENCES......Page 252
4 Energy Supply......Page 263
Table of Contents......Page 264
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY......Page 265
4.1 Introduction......Page 268
4.2 Status of the sector......Page 270
4.2.2 Emission trends of all GHGs......Page 273
4.2.3 Regional development trends......Page 274
4.2.4 Implications of sustainable development and energy access......Page 275
4.3 Primary energy resource potentials, supply chain and conversion technologies......Page 276
Technologies......Page 277
Unconventional natural gas......Page 278
4.3.1.3 Petroleum fuels......Page 279
4.3.2 Nuclear energy......Page 280
4.3.2.2 Nuclear-waste management, disposal and proliferation aspects......Page 281
4.3.2.3 Development of future nuclear-power systems......Page 282
4.3.2.5 Nuclear fusion......Page 283
4.3.3 Renewable energy......Page 284
4.3.3.1 Hydroelectricity......Page 285
4.3.3.2 Wind......Page 286
4.3.3.3 Biomass and bioenergy......Page 287
4.3.3.4 Geothermal......Page 289
4.3.3.5 Solar thermal electric......Page 290
4.3.3.7 Solar heating and cooling......Page 291
4.3.4 Energy carriers......Page 292
4.3.4.2 Heat and heat pumps......Page 294
Hydrogen......Page 295
4.3.6 Carbon dioxide capture and storage (CCS)......Page 296
4.3.7 Transmission, distribution, and storage......Page 298
4.3.7.1 Energy storage......Page 299
4.3.8 Decentralized energy......Page 300
4.4.1. Carbon dioxide emissions from energy supply by 2030......Page 301
4.4.2 Cost analyses......Page 302
4.4.3 Evaluation of costs and potentials for lowcarbon, energy-supply technologies......Page 305
4.4.3.1 Plant efficiency and fuel switching......Page 306
4.4.3.2 Nuclear......Page 307
Hydro......Page 308
Bioenergy (excluding biofuels for transport)......Page 309
Coal CCS......Page 310
4.4.4 Electricity-supply sector mitigation potential and cost of GHG emission avoidance......Page 311
The baseline......Page 312
Sector analysis from 2010 to 2030......Page 313
4.4.4.1 Mitigation potentials of the electricity supply sector......Page 315
4.4.4.3 Transport biofuels......Page 316
4.5.1.1 Emission-reduction policies for energy supply......Page 317
Feed-in tariffs/Quota obligations......Page 318
Technology development and deployment......Page 319
4.5.1.2 Policy implementation experiences—successes and failures......Page 320
4.5.2 Air quality and pollution......Page 321
4.5.3 Co-benefits of mitigation policies......Page 322
4.5.4.3 Barriers to providing energy sources for sustainable development......Page 323
4.5.4.4 Strategies for providing energy for sustainable development......Page 324
4.5.6.1 Public and private funding......Page 325
REFERENCES......Page 327
5 Transport and its infrastructure......Page 335
Table of Contents......Page 336
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY......Page 337
5.2.1 Transport today......Page 340
5.2.2 Transport in the future......Page 342
Aviation......Page 346
5.3 Mitigation technologies and strategies......Page 347
5.3.1 Road transport......Page 348
Lightweight materials......Page 349
Mobil Air Conditioning (MAC) systems......Page 350
Hybrid drive trains......Page 351
Biofuels......Page 353
Natural Gas (CNG / LNG / GTL)......Page 356
Hydrogen / Fuel Cells......Page 357
5.3.1.4 Well-to-wheels analysis of technical mitigation options......Page 359
5.3.1.5 Road transport: mode shifts......Page 360
Public transport......Page 361
Non-motorized transport (NMT)......Page 362
5.3.2 Rail......Page 363
5.3.3 Aviation......Page 364
Aircraft developments......Page 365
Alternative fuels for aviation......Page 366
Aviation potential practices......Page 367
5.3.4 Shipping......Page 368
5.4.1 Available worldwide studies......Page 369
5.4.2.1 Light-duty Vehicles......Page 371
5.4.2.2 Aircraft......Page 376
5.4.2.3 Biofuels......Page 377
5.5.1.1 Land use and transport planning......Page 378
5.5.1.2 Taxation and pricing......Page 380
Taxes......Page 381
Licensing and parking charges......Page 382
5.5.1.3 Regulatory and operational measures......Page 383
5.5.1.4 Fuel economy standards – road transport......Page 384
5.5.1.5 Transport Demand Management......Page 386
5.5.2.1 Aviation......Page 387
Policies to address the full climate impact of aviation......Page 388
Economic instruments for international shipping......Page 389
5.5.4 Co-benefi ts and ancillary benefi ts......Page 390
5.5.5 Sustainable Development impacts of mitigation options and considerations on the link of adaptation with mitigation.......Page 391
REFERENCES......Page 392
6 Residential and commercial1 buildings......Page 399
Table of Contents......Page 400
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY......Page 401
6.2 Trends in buildings sector emissions......Page 403
6.3 Scenarios of carbon emissions resulting from energy use in buildings......Page 404
6.4 GHG mitigation options in buildings and equipment......Page 405
6.4.1.6 Utilize system approaches to building design......Page 406
6.4.2.1 Insulation......Page 407
6.4.3.2 Space heating systems......Page 408
6.4.4.2 Passive and low-energy cooling techniques......Page 409
6.4.4.3 Air conditioners and vapour-compression chillers......Page 410
Displacement ventilation......Page 411
Cogeneration and District Heating/Cooling......Page 412
6.4.7.2 Solar thermal energy for heating and hot water......Page 413
6.4.10 Daylighting......Page 414
6.4.11 Household appliances, consumer electronics and office equipment......Page 415
6.4.13.2 Conventional retrofits of institutional and commercial buildings......Page 416
6.4.15 Trade-offs involving energy-related emissions and halocarbon emissions......Page 417
6.4.16 Summary of mitigation options in buildings......Page 418
6.5.1 Recent advances in potential estimations from around the world......Page 421
6.5.3 Supply curves of conserved carbon dioxide......Page 426
6.5.4 Most attractive measures in buildings......Page 427
6.6.2 Improved health, quality of life and comfort......Page 428
6.6.4 Employment creation and new business opportunities......Page 429
6.7.1 Limitations of the traditional building design process and fragmented market structure......Page 430
6.7.3 Energy subsidies, non-payment and theft......Page 431
6.7.7 Culture, behaviour, lifestyle and the rebound effect......Page 432
6.8.1.1 Building codes......Page 433
6.8.1.3 Education, training and energy audit programmes......Page 434
6.8.2 Policies and programmes aimed at appliances, lighting and offi ce/consumer plug loads......Page 435
6.8.2.1 Standards and labelling......Page 436
6.8.3.1 Utility demand-side management programmes......Page 437
6.8.3.2 Energy prices, pricing schemes, energy price subsidies and taxes......Page 438
6.8.3.4 Public sector leadership programmes and public procurement policies......Page 439
6.8.3.5 Promotion of energy service companies (ESCOs) and energy performance contracting (EPC)......Page 440
6.8.3.7 The Kyoto Protocol’s Flexibility Mechanisms......Page 441
6.8.4.1 Stationary refrigeration, air conditioning and heat pump applications......Page 442
6.8.5 Policy options for GHG abatement in buildings: summary and conclusion......Page 443
6.9.1 Interactions of mitigation options with vulnerability and adaptation......Page 447
6.9.2 Synergies with sustainability in developing countries......Page 448
REFERENCES......Page 449
7 Industry......Page 459
Table of Contents......Page 460
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY......Page 461
7.1.2 Development trends......Page 463
7.1.3 Emission trends......Page 464
7.2 Industrial mitigation matrix......Page 466
7.3.1 Management practices, including benchmarking......Page 468
7.3.2 Energy efficiency......Page 469
7.3.4 Heat and power recovery......Page 470
7.3.6 Materials efficiency and recycling......Page 471
7.4.1 Iron and steel......Page 472
7.4.2.1 Aluminium......Page 475
7.4.3 Chemicals and fertilizers......Page 476
7.4.3.2 Fertilizer manufacture......Page 477
7.4.4 Petroleum refining......Page 478
7.4.5.1 Cement......Page 479
7.4.5.4 Ceramics......Page 480
7.4.6.1 Mitigation options......Page 481
7.4.7.2 Mitigation opportunities......Page 482
7.4.8 Other industries......Page 483
7.5 Short- and medium-term mitigation potential and cost......Page 484
7.5.3 Summary and comparison with other studies......Page 485
7.6 Barriers to industrial GHG mitigation......Page 487
7.7 Sustainable Development (SD) implications of industrial GHG mitigation......Page 489
7.9.1.1 Regional differences......Page 490
7.9.2.1 Government-initiated GHG programmes and voluntary agreements......Page 491
7.9.2.2 Company or industry-initiated voluntary actions......Page 492
7.9.3 Financial instruments: taxes, subsidies and access to capital......Page 493
7.9.6 Energy and technology policies......Page 494
7.9.9 Waste management policies......Page 495
7.10 Co-benefi ts of industrial GHG mitigation......Page 496
7.11 Technology Research, Development, Deployment and Diffusion (RDD&D)......Page 497
7.11.1.2 Foreign or international policies......Page 498
7.13 Key uncertainties and gaps in knowledge......Page 499
REFERENCES......Page 500
8 Agriculture......Page 509
Table of Contents......Page 510
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY......Page 511
8.2 Status of sector, development trends including production and consumption, and implications......Page 513
8.3.2 Future global trends......Page 515
8.4.1 Mitigation technologies and practices......Page 517
8.4.1.1 Cropland management......Page 518
8.4.1.2 Grazing land management and pasture improvement......Page 520
8.4.1.4 Restoration of degraded lands......Page 521
8.4.1.6 Manure management......Page 522
8.4.2 Mitigation technologies and practices: perarea estimates of potential......Page 523
8.4.3.1 Technical potential for GHG mitigation in agriculture......Page 526
8.4.3.2 Economic potential for GHG mitigation in agriculture......Page 528
8.4.4.2 Dedicated energy crops......Page 531
8.4.5 Potential implications of mitigation options for sustainable development......Page 532
8.6.1 Impact of climate policies......Page 534
8.7.1 Other UN conventions......Page 537
8.8 Co-benefits and trade-offs of mitigation options......Page 538
8.9 Technology research, development, deployment, diffusion and transfer......Page 542
8.10 Long-term outlook......Page 543
REFERENCES......Page 544
9 Forestry......Page 553
Table of Contents......Page 554
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY......Page 555
9.2.1 Forest area......Page 556
9.3 Regional and global trends in terrestrial greenhouse gas emissions and removals......Page 558
9.4.1 Conceptual introduction......Page 559
9.4.2 Description of mitigation measures......Page 561
9.4.2.2 Maintaining or increasing forest area: afforestation/reforestation......Page 562
Reducing deforestation......Page 563
Afforestation and reforestation......Page 564
OECD North America......Page 565
Europe......Page 566
Non-annex I East Asia......Page 567
9.4.3.2 Global Forest sectoral modelling......Page 568
9.4.3.3 Global forest mitigation in climate stabilization analysis......Page 572
9.4.4 Global summation and comparison......Page 573
9.5 Interactions with adaptation and vulnerability......Page 575
9.5.2 Mitigation and adaptation synergies......Page 576
9.6.1 Policies aimed at reducing deforestation......Page 578
9.6.3 Policies to improve forest management......Page 580
9.6.5 Strengthening the role of forest policies in mitigating climate change......Page 581
9.6.6.2 Potential non-permanence of carbon storage......Page 583
9.6.6.3 Additionality and baselines......Page 584
9.7.1 Conceptual aspects......Page 585
9.7.3 Implications of mitigation options on water, biodiversity and soil......Page 586
9.8 Technology, R&D, deployment, diffusion and transfer......Page 588
9.9 Long-term outlook......Page 589
REFERENCES......Page 590
10 Waste Management......Page 597
Table of Contents......Page 598
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY......Page 599
10.1 Introduction......Page 600
10.2.1 Waste generation......Page 603
10.2.2 Wastewater generation......Page 604
10.2.3 Development trends for waste and wastewater......Page 605
10.3.1 Global overview......Page 607
10.3.2 Landfill CH4: regional trends......Page 609
10.3.3 Wastewater and human sewage CH4 and N2O: regional trends......Page 610
10.4.1 Waste management and GHG-mitigation technologies......Page 611
10.4.2 CH4 management at landfills......Page 612
10.4.4 Biological treatment including composting, anaerobic digestion, and MBT (Mechanical Biological Treatment)......Page 613
10.4.6 Wastewater and sludge treatment......Page 614
10.4.7 Waste management and mitigation costs and potentials......Page 615
10.4.8 Fluorinated gases: end-of-life issues, data and trends in the waste sector......Page 618
10.5.1 Reducing landfill CH4 emissions......Page 619
10.5.2 Incineration and other thermal processes for waste-to-energy......Page 620
10.5.6 Non-climate policies affecting GHG emissions from waste......Page 621
10.6.1 Municipal solid waste management......Page 622
10.6.2 Wastewater management......Page 623
REFERENCES......Page 625
11 Mitigation from a cross-sectoral perspective......Page 631
Table of Contents......Page 632
Carbon prices and macro-economic costs of mitigation to 2030......Page 633
Spillover effects from Annex I action......Page 634
11.2.1 Cross-sectoral technological options......Page 635
11.2.2.1 Iron and nitrogen fertilization of the oceans......Page 636
11.3 Overall mitigation potential and costs, including portfolio analysis and cross-sectoral modelling......Page 637
11.3.1.2 The baseline......Page 638
11.3.1.3 Synthesizing the potentials from Chapters 4 to 10 involving electricity......Page 639
11.3.1.4 Synthesizing the potentials from Chapters 4 to 10 involving biomass......Page 640
Synthesis of biomass supply & demand......Page 641
11.3.1.5 Estimates of mitigation potentials from Chapters 4 to 10......Page 643
11.3.1.7 Conclusions of bottom-up potential estimates......Page 646
11.3.2 Comparing bottom-up and top-down sectoral potentials for 2030......Page 647
11.3.4 Regional cross-sectoral effects of greenhouse gas mitigation policies to 2025......Page 649
11.4.2 Policy analysis of the effects of the Kyoto Protocol......Page 654
11.4.3.1 Policy studies for the United States......Page 655
11.4.3.3 Policy studies for Europe......Page 656
11.4.4 Post-Kyoto studies......Page 658
11.4.4.1 A comparison of the macro-economic costs of mitigation to 2030 from modelling studies......Page 659
11.4.5 Differences between models......Page 661
11.5.1 Endogenous and exogenous technological development and diffusion......Page 662
11.5.2 Effects of modelling sectoral technologies on estimated mitigation costs......Page 664
11.5.3 The costs of mitigation with and without endogenous technological change......Page 665
11.6 From medium-term to long-term mitigation costs and potentials......Page 670
11.6.3 Price levels required for deep mid-century emission reductions: the wider evidence......Page 671
11.6.4 Complementary measures for deep emission reductions......Page 673
11.6.5 Capital stock and inertia determinants of transitions in the second quarter of the century......Page 674
11.6.6 Investment and incentive stability......Page 675
11.7.1 The nature and importance of spillover......Page 676
11.7.2.1 Equilibrium modelling of carbon leakage from the Kyoto Protocol......Page 677
11.7.4 Impact of mitigation action on competitiveness (trade, investment, labour, sector structure)......Page 678
11.7.5.1 Effects of Annex I action reported in the TAR......Page 679
11.7.6 Technological spillover......Page 680
11.8.1.1 Co-benefi ts of greenhouse gas mitigation on air pollution......Page 681
11.8.1.2 Co-benefi ts for human health......Page 682
11.8.1.5 Avoidance of air-pollution control costs......Page 685
11.8.1.7 Methane/ozone......Page 686
11.8.1.10 Practical examples of integrated strategies......Page 687
11.8.4 Summary......Page 688
11.9.1.1 Energy......Page 689
11.9.1.5 Agriculture and forestry......Page 690
REFERENCES......Page 691
Step 1: Baseline electricity consumption and emissions......Page 699
Step 3: The substitution of generating capacity with low-carbon capacity......Page 700
2. Sensitivity analysis for potentials in the electricity sector......Page 702
12 Sustainable Development and Mitigation......Page 703
Table of Contents......Page 704
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY......Page 705
12.1.1 The two-way relationship between sustainable development and climate change......Page 707
12.1.2 Evolution and articulation of the concept of sustainable development......Page 708
12.1.3 Measurement of progress towards sustainable development......Page 710
12.2 Implications of development choices for climate change mitigation......Page 711
12.2.1 Multiplicity of plausible development pathways ahead, with different economic, social and environmental content......Page 712
12.2.1.1 Development paths as well as climate policies determine GHG emissions......Page 713
12.2.1.2 New global scenario analyses confirm the importance of development paths for mitigation......Page 715
12.2.1.3 Development paths can vary by regions and countries because of different priorities and conditions......Page 716
12.2.2 Lower emissions pathways are not necessarily associated with lower economic growth......Page 719
12.2.3 Changing development pathway requires working with multiple actors, at multiple scales......Page 720
12.2.3.1 State......Page 721
12.2.3.2 Market......Page 723
12.2.3.3 Civil society......Page 725
12.2.3.4 Interactions......Page 726
12.2.3.5 Policy implications......Page 728
12.2.4 Opportunities at the sectoral level to change development pathways towards lower emissions through development policies......Page 729
12.2.4.1 Energy......Page 730
12.2.4.2 Transportation and urban planning......Page 732
12.2.4.4 Macro-economy and trade......Page 733
12.2.4.5 Some general insights on the opportunities to change development pathways at the sectoral level......Page 734
12.2.4.6 Mainstreaming climate change into development choices: Setting priorities......Page 735
12.2.4.7 Operationalization of mainstreaming......Page 737
12.3 Implications of mitigation choices for sustainable development goals......Page 738
12.3.1.1 Energy demand sectors – Transport, Buildings and Industry......Page 741
12.3.1.3 Cross-sectoral sustainable development impacts......Page 742
12.3.3 Agriculture sector......Page 743
12.3.4 Waste and wastewater management sector......Page 744
12.4 Gaps in knowledge and future research needs......Page 745
REFERENCES......Page 746
13 Policies, Instruments and Co-operative Arrangements......Page 757
Table of Contents......Page 758
National policies......Page 759
Implications for global climate change policy......Page 760
13.1.1 Types of policies, measures, instruments and co-operative arrangements......Page 762
13.1.2.2 Cost-effectiveness......Page 763
13.1.2.4 Institutional feasibility......Page 764
13.2.1.1 Regulations and standards......Page 765
13.2.1.2 Taxes and charges......Page 767
13.2.1.3 Tradable permits......Page 768
13.2.1.4 Voluntary agreements......Page 771
13.2.1.5 Subsidies and incentives......Page 772
13.2.1.6 Research and Development......Page 774
13.2.1.7 Information instruments......Page 776
13.2.2.1 National policy interactions/linkages and packages......Page 777
13.2.2.2 Criteria assessment......Page 778
13.3.3 Proposals for climate change agreements......Page 780
13.3.3.1 Goals......Page 781
13.3.3.2 Participation......Page 785
13.3.3.3 Implications of regime stringency: linking goals, participation and timing......Page 787
Regional costs......Page 788
13.3.3.4.2 Flexibility provisions......Page 789
13.3.3.4.3 Coordination/harmonization of policies......Page 793
13.3.3.4.4 Technology......Page 795
13.3.3.5 Financing......Page 796
13.3.3.5.2 Direct international transfers......Page 797
13.3.3.5.3 GEF and the multilateral development banks (MDBs)......Page 798
13.3.3.7 Compliance......Page 799
13.3.3.9 Negotiating process......Page 800
13.3.4 Evaluating international climate change agreements......Page 801
13.3.4.4 Institutional feasibility......Page 802
13.4.1 Sub-national initiatives......Page 803
13.4.2 Corporate and NGO actions......Page 804
13.4.3 Litigation related to climate change......Page 805
13.4.4 Interactions between private, local and non-governmental initiatives and national/ international efforts......Page 806
13.5 Implications for global climate change policy......Page 807
REFERENCES......Page 808
Glossary......Page 821
Abbreviations & Acronyms......Page 835
Prefi xes for basic physical units......Page 838
Contributors to the IPCC WGIII Fourth Assessment Report......Page 839
Reviewers of the IPCC WGIII Fourth Assessment Report......Page 845
Index......Page 853