Clean Coal Engineering Technology

Copyright......Page 2
Dedication......Page 3
Preface......Page 4
Organization of 
this Book......Page 6

Coal Use before the Industrial Revolution......Page 7

The Early History of U.S. Coal Mining and Use......Page 8

Coal Use during the Industrial Revolution......Page 9
The Post-Industrial Revolution Use of Coal......Page 10

An Overview of Energy in the United States......Page 11

Coal Production in the United States......Page 17

Coal Consumption in the United States......Page 25

U.S. Coal Exports and Imports......Page 27

World Primary Energy Production......Page 29

World Primary Energy Consumption......Page 36

Projections of Energy Use and Coal's Contribution to the Energy Mix......Page 40

World Consumption of Liquid Fuels......Page 43

World Consumption of Coal......Page 44
Projected Coal Consumption in North America......Page 45
Projected Coal Consumption in OECD Europe......Page 46
Projected Coal Consumption in Non-OECD Asia......Page 47

World Consumption of Nuclear Energy......Page 49

World Consumption of Renewable Energy......Page 50

Energy Outlook for the United States......Page 51
Projected Energy Consumption in the United States......Page 52
Projected Energy Production in the United States......Page 53

Coal's Role in the U.S.'s 2001 Energy Policy......Page 54
References......Page 56

Origin of Coal......Page 57

Coalification......Page 58

Basic Coal Analysis......Page 61

The Ranks of Coal......Page 63

The Types of Coal......Page 65

Classification Systems......Page 67
The ASTM Classification System......Page 68
International Classification/Codification Systems......Page 69
References......Page 72
Coal Distribution and Resources......Page 73
Coal Reserves throughout the World......Page 74
United States......Page 78
Russia......Page 82
Kazakhstan......Page 83
Australia......Page 84
Poland......Page 85
South Africa......Page 86
Central and South America......Page 87

The Effect of Coal Usage on Human Health and the Environment......Page 88

Underground Mining......Page 89
Subsidence......Page 90
Generation of Gases......Page 91
Liquid Effluents/Acid Mine Drainage......Page 94
Hydrologic Impact......Page 96
Health Effects and Miner Safety......Page 97

Surface Mining......Page 99
Liquid Effluents and Acid Mine Drainage......Page 100
Health Effects and Miner Safety......Page 101

Legislation and Reclamation......Page 102

Coal Preparation......Page 103

Refuse Contaminants from Preparation Plants......Page 105

Health and Safety Issues......Page 106

Coal Transportation......Page 107

Coal Combustion By-Products......Page 108
Environmental Effects......Page 110
Health Effects......Page 112

Nitrogen Oxides......Page 113
Environmental Effects......Page 114

Particulate Matter......Page 115
Environmental Effects......Page 116
Health Effects......Page 117

Carbon Monoxide......Page 119

Trace Elements......Page 120
Environmental Effects......Page 121
Lead......Page 122
Arsenic......Page 123
Fluorine......Page 124
Molybdenum......Page 125
Radionuclides......Page 126
Greenhouse Gases-Carbon Dioxide......Page 127
Environmental Effects......Page 130
References......Page 132

Coal Combustion......Page 136

Brief History of Boilers and Coal Combustion Systems......Page 137
Size and Number of Units......Page 142
Boiler Design......Page 143
Fuel Diversity and Global Product Competition......Page 144
Basic Steam 
Fundamentals and their Application to Boiler Development......Page 145
Devolatilization of Pulverized Coal and Volatiles Combustion......Page 147
Char Combustion......Page 148

Coal Combustion Systems......Page 152
Fixed-Bed Combustion......Page 153
Underfeed Stokers......Page 154
Overfeed Stokers......Page 155
Spreader Stokers......Page 157
Fluidized-Bed Combustion......Page 158
Role of Sorbents in an FBC Process......Page 160
Comparison of Bubbling and Circulating Fluidized-Bed Combustion Boilers......Page 161
Suspension Firing......Page 164
Dry-Bottom Firing......Page 165
Wet-Bottom Firing......Page 167
Cyclone Furnaces......Page 168
Furnace Design......Page 169
Slagging and Fouling Potential......Page 171

Carbonization......Page 175

Brief History of Carbonization High-Temperature......Page 177

Coking Processes......Page 178

Coal Properties for Coke Production......Page 181

Low-Temperature Carbonization......Page 182
Smokeless Fuel Commercial Processes......Page 183
Low-Rank Coal Upgrading......Page 184

Brief History of Coal Gasification......Page 186

Principles of Coal Gasification......Page 187

Gasifier Types......Page 188
Fixed-Bed Gasifiers......Page 189

Influence of Coal Properties on Gasification......Page 192
Fixed Carbon......Page 193

Regional Distribution of Gasification Systems......Page 194
Fixed-Bed Gasifiers......Page 197
Fluidized-Bed Gasifiers......Page 200
HTW Gasifier......Page 201
KRW Gasifiers......Page 203
GE Energy Gasifiers......Page 204
Shell Gasifiers......Page 205
Prenflo Gasifiers......Page 206
References......Page 218
Coal Transport to the Power Plant......Page 221
Coal Handling, Storage, and Processing......Page 225
Coal Handling......Page 226
Coal Storage......Page 227
Coal Processing/Size Reduction......Page 228
Furnace and Convection Pass......Page 238
Steam Drums......Page 239
Steam Turbines......Page 241
Steam Condensers......Page 244
Water Treatment......Page 245
Environmental Protection......Page 248
Convective Pass/Economizer Ash Systems......Page 249
Fly Ash Systems......Page 250
Scrubber Sludge Systems......Page 251

Rankine Cycle......Page 253

Combined Cycle......Page 255

Pulverized Coal-Fired Power Plants......Page 256

Advanced Pulverized Coal-Fired Plants......Page 257
Improved Fabrication Technology......Page 262

Oxy-Fuel Firing in Pulverized Coal-Fired Boilers......Page 263
Steam Generator Design Issues......Page 264
Overall Process Issues......Page 265

Introduction......Page 266

Heat Transfer......Page 268

Fuel Flexibility......Page 269

Pollutant Formation and Control......Page 271
Transformation of Sorbents in the FBC Process......Page 272
Bed Quality......Page 274
Porosity......Page 275
Surface Area......Page 276
NOx Formation......Page 277
Combustion Temperature......Page 278
NOx Reduction Techniques......Page 279
Trace Elements......Page 280
Ash Chemistry and Agglomeration Issues......Page 283

Integrated Gasification Combined Cycle......Page 284

Introduction......Page 285

Gasification Island......Page 286

Gas Treatment and Sulfur Recovery......Page 287
Amine Processes......Page 288
Selexol......Page 289
Rectisol......Page 290

IGCC with Carbon Capture......Page 292
Efficiency......Page 293
NOx Emissions......Page 294
References......Page 298

Pre-Industrial Revolution......Page 303

Post-Industrial Revolution......Page 304

Pre-1970 Legislation......Page 305
The National Air Quality Control Act of 1967......Page 306

The Clean Air Act Amendments of 1970......Page 307
Air Quality Criteria and National Ambient Air Quality Standards......Page 308
National Emission Standards......Page 309
40 CFR Part 60 Subpart Da......Page 311
40 CFR Part 60 Subparts Db and Dc......Page 312
Emission Factors......Page 315
Prevention of Significant Deterioration......Page 317

Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990......Page 319
Title I: Provisions for Attainment and Maintenance of National Ambient Air Quality Standards......Page 320
Title III: Air Toxics......Page 322
The SO2 Program......Page 323
Title V: Permitting......Page 325
Ozone Transport Commission NOx Budget Program 1992-2002......Page 326
NOx Budget Trading Program/NOx SIP Call 2003-2008......Page 327

Clean Air Interstate Rule......Page 329

Clean Air Mercury Rule......Page 330

New Source Review......Page 332

Fine Particulate Matter......Page 334
Multipollutant Legislation......Page 335
Climate Change/Greenhouse Gas Emissions......Page 337

Sulfur Dioxide......Page 339

Nitrogen Oxides......Page 343

Particulate Matter......Page 347

Trace Elements/Mercury......Page 348

Carbon Dioxide......Page 350

Air Quality and Coal-Fired Emissions......Page 351

Six Principal Pollutants......Page 353
Ozone......Page 354
Particulate Matter......Page 356
Carbon Monoxide......Page 360
Lead......Page 363

Acid Rain......Page 364

Hazardous Air Pollutants......Page 368
Mercury......Page 370

Carbon Dioxide......Page 371
References......Page 373
Emissions Control 
Strategies for Power Plants......Page 377

Currently Regulated Emissions......Page 378
Chemistry of Sulfur Oxide Formation......Page 379
Sulfur Dioxide Control......Page 380
Worldwide Deployment of FGD Systems......Page 381
Techniques to Reduce Sulfur Dioxide Emissions......Page 384
Using Low-Sulfur Fuels......Page 385
Coal Cleaning......Page 387
Wet Flue Gas Desulfurization Wet FGD......Page 389
Limestone- and Lime-Based Scrubbers......Page 390
Limestone with Forced Oxidation......Page 392
Limestone with Forced Oxidation Producing a Wallboard Gypsum By-Product......Page 393
Magnesium Enhanced Lime......Page 394
Limestone with Dibasic Acid......Page 395
Lime Dual Alkali......Page 396
Regenerative Processes......Page 397
The Wellman-Lord Process......Page 398
Regenerative Magnesia Scrubbing......Page 399
Spray Dry Scrubbers......Page 400
Sorbent Injection Processes......Page 402
Furnace Sorbent Injection......Page 404
Economizer Injection......Page 407
Duct Sorbent Injection-Duct Spray Drying......Page 408
Duct Sorbent Injection-Dry Sorbent Injection......Page 409
Circulating Fluidized-Bed Scrubbers......Page 412
Economics of Flue Gas Desulfurization......Page 413
Spray Dry Processes......Page 414
NOx Formation Mechanisms......Page 415
Thermal NO......Page 416
Fuel NO......Page 417
NOx Control in Pulverized Coal Combustion......Page 418
Combustion Modifications......Page 422
Low-NOx Burners......Page 423
Furnace Air Staging......Page 426
Fuel Staging Reburn......Page 427
Cofiring......Page 429
Selective Catalytic Reduction......Page 431
Selective Non-Catalytic Reduction......Page 434
Hybrid SNCR/SCR......Page 435
NOx Control in Stoker-Fired Boilers......Page 436
Flue Gas Recirculation......Page 437
Process Optimization......Page 438
References......Page 477

CO2 Capture and Storage......Page 484

CO2 Capture Technologies......Page 486

Precombustion IGCC CO2 Capture......Page 487

Postcombustion CO2 Capture......Page 488
Amine-Based Liquid Solvent Systems......Page 491
Aqueous Ammonia Process......Page 493
Solid Sorbents......Page 494
Membranes......Page 495
Ionic Liquid Systems......Page 496

Biomass Cofiring......Page 497

Transport of CO2......Page 498

Geologic Storage......Page 499

Ocean Storage......Page 501

Mineral Carbonation......Page 502

Capture Costs......Page 503
Postcombustion CO2 Capture Economics......Page 504
Oxy-Fuel Combustion Economics......Page 506
Economics of Biomass Cofiring......Page 507

Costs of Transporting CO2......Page 508
Geologic Storage Costs......Page 509

Permanence and Monitoring, Mitigation, and Verification......Page 510
References......Page 511
Introduction to U.S. Clean Coal Technology Programs......Page 513
Clean Coal Technology Demonstration Program......Page 514
CCTDP Evolution......Page 515
CCTDP Projects......Page 516
SO2 Control Technologies......Page 517
NOx Control Technologies......Page 522
Combined SO2/NOx Control Technologies......Page 523
Advanced Electric Power Generation Technology......Page 525
Fluidized-Bed Combustion......Page 526
Integrated Gasification Combined Cycle......Page 527
Coal Processing for Clean Fuels Technology......Page 533
CCTDP Accomplishments......Page 537
Power Plant Improvement Initiative......Page 541
PPII Projects......Page 542
Benefits of the PPII......Page 546
Program Importance......Page 547
Round 1 CCPI Projects......Page 548
Round 2 CCPI Projects......Page 553
Round 3 CCPI CCPI-3A and CCPI-3B Projects......Page 556
CCPI Benefits......Page 558
Benefits of DOE's Clean Coal Technology Programs......Page 559
Vision 21 Technologies......Page 563
FutureGen......Page 565
DOE Carbon Sequestration Programs......Page 568
International Clean Coal Technology and Carbon Sequestration Activities......Page 572
Canada......Page 573
Australia......Page 574
Japan......Page 576
China......Page 577
Others......Page 578
Coal and Energy Security......Page 584
Overview of U.S. Energy Security Issues......Page 585
The Future of Energy in the United States......Page 587
Energy and the Economy......Page 588
Natural Gas Use in Power Generation......Page 591
Coal's Potential to Reduce U.S. Dependence on Imported Crude Oil......Page 593
Coal's Role in Future U.S. Electric Power Generation......Page 595
Production of Hydrogen from Coal......Page 602
International Demand for Electricity......Page 603
Advanced Coal Technology Application Support for Sustained Coal Utilization......Page 605
Energy Security......Page 606
Sustainable Development......Page 607
Concluding Statements......Page 608

Non-Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development Non-OECD......Page 612
Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries OPEC......Page 613
Commercial Gasification Facilities
Worldwide......Page 614
Coal-Fired Emission Factors......Page 624
Original List of Hazardous
Air Pollutants......Page 650
Initial 263 Units Identified
in Phase I SO2 of the Acid
Rain Program......Page 655
A......Page 658
B......Page 659
C......Page 660
D......Page 664
E......Page 665
F......Page 667
G......Page 668
I......Page 669
M......Page 670
N......Page 672
P......Page 673
S......Page 675
U......Page 677
Z......Page 678