Chitosan: Manufacture, Properties, and Usage

CHITOSAN: MANUFACTURE, PROPERTIES, AND USAGE......Page 2
Title Page......Page 4
CONTENTS......Page 6
PREFACE......Page 8
ABSTRACT......Page 14
1. INTRODUCTION......Page 15
3. USABLE FUNGI AND SUBSTRATES......Page 16
3.1.2. Enhancement of Chitosan Content by Using Plant Growth Hormones......Page 20
3.1.3. Use of Fungal Properties to Enhance the Chitosan Yield......Page 21
4. EXTRACTION OF CHITOSAN......Page 24
5.1. General Properties of Chitosan......Page 26
5.2. Characterization Methods......Page 27
5.2.1.1.2. Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy......Page 28
5.2.1.1.3. Titration......Page 29
5.2.1.1.4. Infrared Spectroscopy......Page 30
5.2.1.2.2. Light Scattering......Page 31
5.2.1.3. Protein Determination by Bradford Assays......Page 32
5.2.1.6. Ash Content......Page 33
6. APPLICATIONS......Page 34
6.1. Summary of Current Commercial Chitosan Applications  and Future Perspectives......Page 35
6.1.2. Micro- and Nano-Scale Fibres and Particles......Page 40
6.1.3. Intelligent Drug Delivery Systems and Hydrogels......Page 41
6.1.5.1. Sensors Based on Specific Molecule Binding......Page 42
6.1.5.2. Enzyme Based Sensors......Page 43
6.1.6. Adsorption of Copper......Page 45
6.1.6.1. Reaction Mechanism......Page 46
6.1.6.2. Influential Factors......Page 47
6.1.6.3. Immobilized Chitosan......Page 49
6.1.7. Sorption of 17ß-Estradiol......Page 50
6.1.7.1. Physico-Chemical Properties of 17ß-Estradiol......Page 52
6.1.7.2. Effect of the Chitosan Concentration on the Sorption Process......Page 55
6.1.7.3. Sorption Isotherms......Page 56
6.1.7.4. Sorption Kinetics......Page 60
6.1.7.5. Influence of Immobilisation onto Glass Beads......Page 63
6.1.7.6. Filter Bed Columns with Immobilised Chitosan for 17ß-Estradiol Removal......Page 64
6.1.8. Chitosan as Bone Replacement Material in Medicine - Biomimetic Coating of Chitosan Films......Page 68
REFERENCES......Page 70
CHITOSAN: MODIFICATIONS AND APPLICATIONS IN DOSAGE FORM DESIGN......Page 84
WHY CHITOSAN DERIVATIVES......Page 85
Thiolated Chitosan......Page 87
Tri Methylated Chitosan......Page 92
Highly Cationic Derivatives......Page 95
Hydroxyalkyl Chitosan......Page 97
Carboxyalkyl Chitosan......Page 98
Cyclodextrin Linked Chitosan......Page 102
N-Acyl Chitosan......Page 111
Graft Copolymerization by Free Radicals......Page 113
Grafting by Epoxy-Terminated Polydimethylsiloxane......Page 114
Controlled Release Drug Delivery Systems......Page 115
Tissue Engineering......Page 116
Wound Healing and Antimicrobial Properties......Page 117
Miscellaneous Applications......Page 118
Safety and Toxicological Studies......Page 120
CONCLUSION......Page 123
REFERENCES......Page 124
INTRODUCTION......Page 146
LITERATURE......Page 147
OCCURRENCE......Page 148
PRODUCTION OF CHITIN AND CHITOSAN......Page 150
CHITIN DEACETYLATION......Page 152
ENZYMATIC DEACETYLATION OF CHITIN......Page 153
FUNCTIONAL GROUPS......Page 154
Solubility and Molecular Weight......Page 155
Effect of Degree of Deacetylation and Molecular Weight......Page 156
Biocompatibility......Page 157
Effect of Complexation, Blending and Composite  Formation on Biocompatibility......Page 158
Biodegradability......Page 159
Effect of Chemical Modification......Page 160
Effect of Copolymerisation......Page 161
Effect of Size and Shape, Cross Linking and Processing  Conditions on Biodegradability......Page 162
Chemical Modifications......Page 167
CRITERIA FOR POLYMER SOLUBILITY......Page 168
Chitin and Chitosan Solubility......Page 169
Chitin Dissolution by Strong Acids and Polar Solvents......Page 171
SOLUBILITY AND MOLECULAR WEIGHT......Page 172
THE DIBUTYRYL CHITIN......Page 173
WATER SOLUBLE ALKALI CHITIN......Page 178
CHITIN FIBRE FORMATION......Page 179
BLENDING WITH OTHER FIBRES/POLYMERS......Page 180
BIODEGRADABILITY OF CHITIN FIBRES......Page 182
FIBRE FORMATION FROM CHITOSAN......Page 183
BIODEGRADABILITY OF CHITOSAN FIBRES......Page 187
STRUCTURAL MODIFICATION......Page 189
NOVEL APPLICATIONS......Page 191
FUTURE OF CHITIN NANO FIBERS IN NANO MEDICINE......Page 192
REFERENCES......Page 198
ABSTRACT......Page 230
II. GENERAL CONCEPT OF THE FORMATION OF POLYELECTROLYTE COMPLEXES......Page 231
1.1. Interpolyelectrolyte Complexes of Chitosan with Animal Polysaccarides and Modified Animal Polysaccarides......Page 235
1.2. Interpolyelectrolyte Complexes of Chitosan with Plant Polysaccarides and Modified Plant Polysaccarides......Page 239
1.3. Interpolyelectrolyte Complexes of Chitosan with Microbial Polysaccarides and Modified Microbial Polysaccarides......Page 243
1.4. Interpolyelectrolyte Complexes of Chitosan with Lipopolysaccarides......Page 244
2. Polyelectrolyte Complexes of Chitosan with Nucleic Acids......Page 245
3. Polyelectrolyte Complexes of Chitosan with Proteins......Page 249
IV. POLYELECTROLYTE COMPLEXES OF CHITOSAN  WITH SYNTHETIC POLYANIONS......Page 252
REFERENCES......Page 259
ABSTRACT......Page 274
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS......Page 275
INTRODUCTION......Page 276
1.1.1. Synthesis of CECh through Alkylation of Chitosan by 3-Halopropionic Acid......Page 277
1.1.2. Synthesis of CECh through Alkylation by Acrylic Acid via Michael Reaction......Page 279
1.2. CECh Behavior in Aqueous Solutions; CECh-Based Nanoparticles......Page 281
1.3. Biological Behavior of CECh in Respect to Cells or Pathogenic Microorganisms......Page 287
2. FABRICATION OF CECH-CONTAINING NANOFIBERS BY ELECTROSPINNING......Page 289
2.1. Preparation of Nanofibers in the Presence of a Non-Ionogenic Polymer Partner......Page 290
2.2. Preparation of Hybrid Nanofibers Containing Inorganic Nanoparticles......Page 296
2.2.1. Fabrication of CECh/Magnetite Hybrid Nanofibers by Electrospinning......Page 297
2.2.3. Electrospun Hybrid Nanofibers Composed of CECh/AgNPs......Page 302
3. MATERIALS BASED ON POLYELECTROLYTE COMPLEXES OF CECh......Page 307
3.1. Polyelectrolyte Complexes of CECh with Polyacids and Polybases; Nanoparticles from PECs Based on CECh......Page 308
3.2. Preparation of Non-Woven Textiles by Combining PEC Formation and Electrospinning......Page 319
4. CONCLUSIONS......Page 326
REFERENCES......Page 327
1. INTRODUCTION......Page 334
Emulsion Crosslinking......Page 336
Emulsion-Droplet Coalescence Method......Page 337
Template Polymerization......Page 339
3.1. Protein, Peptide and Oligosaccharide Delivery......Page 340
Oral Delivery......Page 341
Nasal Delivery......Page 344
Pulmonary Delivery......Page 345
Colon Delivery......Page 346
3.2. Gene Delivery......Page 347
3.2.1. Chitosan Features Influencing Transfection......Page 348
3.2.2. Biological Barriers in Cell Transfection......Page 350
3.2.3. DNA Therapy......Page 353
3.2.4. siRNA Delivery......Page 355
3.3. Delivery of Low Molecular Weight Drugs......Page 356
3.3.1. Cancer-Targeted Drug Delivery......Page 358
Ocular Delivery......Page 361
Lung-Target Drug Delivery......Page 362
REFERENCES......Page 363
ABSTRACT......Page 378
INTRODUCTION......Page 379
Ionic Gelation and Polyelectrolyte Complexation......Page 382
Modified Ionic Gelation with Radical Polymerisation......Page 384
Desolvation......Page 385
Emulsion Solvent Diffusion......Page 386
Oral Delivery......Page 387
Buccal Delivery......Page 399
Nasal Delivery......Page 401
Pulmonary Delivery......Page 410
CONCLUSION......Page 415
REFERENCES......Page 416
ABSTRACT......Page 426
INTRODUCTION......Page 427
APPLICATIONS OF CHITOSAN AS A DRUG DELIVERY POLYMER......Page 430
Conventional Drug Delivery Systems......Page 431
Novel Delivery Systems......Page 433
Chitosan Nanoparticles......Page 434
Microemulsion Method......Page 436
Polyelectrolyte Complex (PEC)......Page 437
APPLICATIONS OF CHITOSAN FOR DIFFERENT DRUG/BIOLOGICAL PRODUCTS DELIVERY......Page 439
CONCLUSION......Page 448
REFERENCES......Page 449
ABSTRACT......Page 462
INTRODUCTION......Page 463
PHYSICOCHEMICAL AND BIOLOGICAL PROPERTIES OF CHITOSAN......Page 464
Gels......Page 468
Patches/Films/Membranes......Page 471
Sponges......Page 472
Microparticles......Page 473
Nanoparticles......Page 474
Liposomes......Page 476
Skin Tissue Engineering......Page 477
Suture......Page 481
Future Directions......Page 482
REFERENCES......Page 483
INDEX......Page 498