Chinese: An Essential Grammar

Cover
Half Title
Series Page
Title Page
Copyright Page
Table of Contents
Preface
Introduction
	The Chinese language
	Mandarin pronunciation
		Initials
		Finals
		Tones
	The Chinese vocabulary
Part I Nouns
	Introduction
	1  Nouns
		1.1	Noun features
		1.2	Proper nouns
		1.3	Common nouns
			1.3.1	The plural suffix -men
			1.3.2	Nouns and definite or indefinite reference
		1.4	Nouns and conjunctions
		1.5	Common nouns: countability
	2  Numerals and nouns
		2.1	Cardinal numbers
			2.1.1	Two forms of the number two
		2.2	Ordinal numbers
		2.3	‘Half’
		2.4	Fractions, percentages, decimals, multiples and ‘every’
		2.5	Approximation
	3  Measures for nouns
		3.1	Measures and gè
		3.2	Other measure words
		3.3	Abstract nouns
		3.4	Material nouns
		3.5	Collective nouns
		3.6	Relationship between measures and nouns
	4  Pronouns
		4.1	Personal pronouns
		4.2	Possessive pronouns
		4.3	Demonstrative pronouns
		4.4	Interrogative pronouns
		4.5	Other pronouns
		4.6	Pronouns and conjunctions
	5  Adjectives and attributives
		5.1	Attributives
		5.2	Adjectives as attributives
			5.2.1	Monosyllabic adjectives
			5.2.2	Polysyllabic adjectives and de
			5.2.3	Disyllabic adjectives and de
		5.3	Nominal attributives
			5.3.1	Nominal attributives and de
		5.4	Prepositional and postpositional phrases as attributives
		5.5	Verbal phrases or clauses as attributives
		5.6	The order of sequential attributives
		5.7	Demonstrative and numeral phrases with other attributives
		5.8	Possessive pronouns and other attributives
		5.9	Ér between adjectives
		5.10 Omission of the noun following an attributive
		5.11 Attributives in word-formation
Part II Verbs
	Introduction
	6 Adjectival and nominal predicates; the verb shì
		6.1	Adjectival predicates
		6.2	Adjectival predicates and the verb ‘to be’
			6.2.1	Adjectival predicates and degree adverbs
			6.2.2 Adjectival predicates in the negative
			6.2.3	Adjectival predicates followed by verbs
		6.3	Non-gradable adjectives as attributives
			6.3.1	Attributives of shape, colour or material
		6.4	Nominal and pronominal predicates
			6.4.1 Verbs resembling shì
			6.4.2 Nominal predicates without a copula
		6.5	The copula shì in its negative form
	7 The verb yǒu; comparisons
		7.1	The functions of yǒu
			7.1.1 Yǒu indicating possession
			7.1.2	Méi as negative of yǒu
			7.1.3	Yǒu indicating change or development
			7.1.4	Yǒu forming idiomatic expressions
			7.1.5	Yǒu introducing adjectival predicates
		7.2	Comparison
			7.2.1	Emphatic or specific comparison
			7.2.2	Negative comparison
			7.2.3	Comparison: equivalence or similarity
		7.3	Comparatives and superlatives
	8 Verbs and aspect markers
		8.1	Action, state and dative verbs
		8.2	Action verbs
		8.3	Aspect markers
			8.3.1	Le
			8.3.2	Guo
			8.3.3	Zài
			8.3.4	Zhe
		8.4	State verbs
		8.5	Dative verbs
			8.5.1	Dative verbs relating to spoken activity
			8.5.2	Dative verbs and aspect markers
		8.6	Causative verbs
		8.7	Imperatives
			8.7.1	Polite requests
			8.7.2	Imperatives and aspect markers
	9  Motion verbs and direction indicators
		9.1	Motion verbs and simple direction indicators
		9.2	Motion verbs and compound direction indicators
		9.3	Motion verbs with metaphorical meaning
		9.4	Direction indicators with specific meanings
	10 Verbs and time
		10.1		Time expressions
		10.2		Point of time expressions
			10.2.1		Detailed time expressions
		10.3		Point-of-time expressions incorporating verbal phrases
		10.4		Imprecise points of time
		10.5		Indefinite points of time
		10.6		Frequency expressions with měi
		10.7		Time expressions in existence sentences
			10.7.1		Time expressions in emergence or disappearance sentences
	11 Verbs and location
		11.1		Location expressions
		11.2		Zài and postpositional phrases
			11.2.1		Disyllabic postpositions
			11.2.2		Disyllabic postpositions as location pronouns
		11.3		Simple location sentences
		11.4		Location phrases modifying main verbs
		11.5		Location phrases in existence sentences
			11.5.1	 Shì in existence sentences
			11.5.2		Zhe in existence sentences
		11.6		Le in emergence or disappearance sentences
		11.7		Order of sequence of time and location phrases
	12 Verbs: duration and frequency
		12.1 Duration expressions
			12.1.1		Duration expressions and noun objects
			12.1.2		Repetition of the verb in a noun-object-duration structure
			12.1.3		Duration expressions and pronoun objects
			12.1.4		Duration expressions in dative construction
			12.1.5		Duration expressions and definite reference
		12.2 Brief duration
			12.2.1		Brief duration and instrumental objects
		12.3		Frequency expressions
	13 Verbs and complements
		13.1		Complements
		13.2		Complements of result
		13.3		Potential complements
			13.3.1		Potential complements using direction indicators
			13.3.2		Metaphorical meanings of potential complements
		13.4		Complements of manner and of consequential state
			13.4.1		Modification of complement of manner
			13.4.2		Complement of consequential state
			13.4.3		Complements of manner or consequential state with a ‘verb + object’ verb
			13.4.4		Adjectival complements of manner in comparisons
			13.4.5		Complement-of-manner comparison with a ‘verb + object’ verb
		13.5		Complement of location or destination
		13.6		Degree complements
	14 Verbs and adverbials
		14.1		Adverbials of manner
			14.1.1		Monosyllabic adjectives as adverbials of manner
			14.1.2		Adverbials of manner with marked verbs
			14.1.3		Adverbials of manner with unmarked verbs
			14.1.4		Monosyllabic adverbial modifiers without de
			14.1.5		Particular types of adverbials of manner
		14.2		Attitudinal adverbial expressions
		14.3		Referential adverbs
		14.4		Referential adverbs with negatives
		14.5		Order of sequence of referential adverbs
		14.6		Order of adverbials in sequence
	15  Modal and similar verbs
		15.1		Modal, attitudinal and intentional verbs
		15.2		Modal verbs
			15.2.1		Modal verbs and adverbs of degree
			15.2.2		Modal verbs and comparison
		15.3		Attitudinal verbs
			15.3.1		Wàngle and jìde
			15.3.2		Gāoxìng
		15.4		Intentional verbs
			15.4.1		Negation of intentional verbs
Part III Sentences
	Introduction
	16 Statements and the sentence particle le
		16.1 Le as a sentence particle
		16.2 Functions of sentence le
			16.2.1		Summing-up function of le
			16.2.2		Le as both sentence particle and aspect marker
		16.3		Cases where sentence le is not used
		16.4		Ultimate versatility of sentence le
	17 Questions
		17.1 Question-word questions
			17.1.1		Zěnmeyàng
			17.1.2		Duō in questions
			17.1.3		Ne in questions
		17.2		General questions with ma
		17.3		Surmise questions with ba
		17.4		Affirmative-negative questions
		17.5		Alternative questions with háishì
		17.6		Tags indicating suggestion
		17.7		Tags seeking confirmation
		17.8		Rhetorical questions
	18 Subject and predicate; topic and comment
		18.1		Dual patterning of sentence structures
		18.2		Subject-predicate sentences
		18.3		Topic-comment sentences
			18.3.1		Further ways to form topic-comment sentences
		18.4		Topic | subject-predicate sentences
			18.4.1		Notional passive sentences
		18.5		Subject | topic-comment sentences
		18.6		A verbal or sentential construction beginning an utterance
	19 Prepositions and coverbs
		19.1		Coverbs
			19.1.1		Coverbs of place and time
			19.1.2		Coverbs of methods and means
			19.1.3		Coverbs of human exchange and service
			19.1.4		Coverbs of reference
			19.1.5		Coverbs and comparison
		19.2		Disyllabic prepositions
	20 Bǎ and bèi constructions
		20.1		The bǎ construction
			20.1.1		The bǎ construction and complements
			20.1.2		Le and zhe as complements in bǎ sentences
			20.1.3		Bǎ and resultative complements
			20.1.4		Nòng and gǎo in bǎ sentences
			20.1.5		Negative bǎ sentences
			20.1.6		Bǎ and modal verbs
			20.1.7		Bǎ and indefinite reference
		20.2		The bèi construction
			20.2.1		Ràng and jiào
			20.2.2		The bèi construction with an agent
			20.2.3		Negative bèi sentences
		20.3		The bèi construction versus the notional passives
	21 Serial constructions
		21.1		General features of serial constructions
		21.2		Semantic varieties in serial constructions
		21.3		Adjectives or state verbs in serial constructions
		21.4		Dative constructions
		21.5		Causative constructions
			21.5.1		Qǐng in a causative construction
			21.5.2		Extended causative constructions
		21.6		Extended serial constructions
	22 Emphasis and the intensifier shì
		22.1		Shì as an intensifier
		22.2		The shì … de construction
			22.2.1		Subject and object emphasis in shì … de sentences
			22.2.2		Shì … de construction and bù
		22.3		Shì without de for progression and projection
			22.3.1		Contexts for shì (without de) sentences
			22.3.2		Shì and comparison
			22.3.3		Shì and negation
		22.4		Shì and topic-comment sentences
			22.4.1		Shì implying reservation
			22.4.2		‘Verb/adjective + shì + verb/adjective’ implying reservation
		22.5		Repetition and emphasis
	23 Abbreviation and omission
		23.1		Three types of abbreviation
		23.2		Conventional abbreviations as subjectless sentences
		23.3		Contextual abbreviation
		23.4		Cotextual omissions
			23.4.1		Cotextual omissions and headwords
			23.4.2		Cotextual omissions in answers
			23.4.3		Contextual/cotextual omissions in extended passages
	24 Composite sentences: conjunctions and conjunctives
		24.1		Types of composite sentence
		24.2		Conjunctions and conjunctives
			24.2.1		Meanings and functions of composite sentences
			24.2.2		Paired conjunctives
		24.3		Composite sentences as parallel structures
		24.4		Verbs taking object clauses
	25 Exclamations and interjections; appositions; and apostrophes
		25.1		Exclamations
			25.1.1		Exclamations with tài
			25.1.2		Question-word questions as exclamations
		25.2		Interjections
			25.2.1		Tone variations in interjections
		25.3		Appositions
		25.4		People being addressed [apostrophe]
Part IV Paragraphs
	Introduction
		26.1		A diary
		26.2		A letter
		26.3		A dialogue
		26.4		A welcome speech
		26.5		A description
		26.6		An explanatory piece of writing
		26.7		An argumentative piece of writing
Part V Speech habits: Meaning and form
	Introduction
		27.1		Universal, contextual or cotextual omissions and abbreviations
			27.1.1		Sentence patterns (1)
			27.1.2		Sentence patterns (2)
		27.2		Sentence extension following paragraph patterns
		27.3		Further features of sentence extension
			27.3.1		Sentences enlarged or extended by illustration or exemplification
			27.3.2		Sentences extended by reasoning
			27.3.3		Sentences extended by detailing or amplification
			27.3.4		Sentences extended by result or purpose
Part VI Writing conventions: Classical quadrisyllabic patterns or idioms
	Introduction
		28.1		An overview of four-character or quadrisyllabic idioms
			28.1.1		The distinction between quadrisyllabic patterns and quadrisyllabic idioms
			28.1.2		The internal structure of quadrisyllabic idioms
		28.2		Quadrisyllabic idioms at work
		28.3		How quadrisyllabic idioms mix comfortably with other rhythms in writing
Part VII Contemporary developments in Chinese: New syntactic and lexical tendencies
	Introduction
	29 Contemporary linguistic developments
		29.1 New syntactic tendencies
			29.1.1		Shift of word classes
			29.1.2		Extensive use of (pseudo-)suffixes or (pseudo-)prefixes
			29.1.3		Multi-syllabic coinages on ‘attributive + headword’ syntactic pattern
		29.2		New ways of lexicalisation
			29.2.1		Direct borrowings
			29.2.2		Semantic/phonetic calques (total or partial)
			29.2.3		Intra-language transliterations
			29.2.4		Internet neologisms
			29.2.5		Neologisms occurring in conversational exchanges
			29.2.6		Abbreviations from quadrisyllabic idioms
Glossary of grammatical terms
Index