China: How the Empire Fell

Cover
Half Title
Title Page
Copyright Page
Table of Contents
Contributors
Biographies
Introduction
	The 1911 Revolution
	The historiography of the revolution
	New approaches
	Notes
Part I: Reform and revolution
	1. The reform predicament
		Post-Boxer reforms
		Internal contradictions of reform
		Social impact of reform
		Notes
	2. Late Qing governors and provincial assemblies
		Governors and the establishment of provincial assemblies
		Conflicts between governors and provincial assemblies
		Reasons for the conflicts
		Conclusions
		Notes
	3. Conflict and competition: a new perspective on late Qing politics
		Revolutionary activity advances constitutionalism
		The court’s passive response to constitutionalist pressure increases support for revolution
		Conflict and collaboration between revolution and constitutionalism
		Notes
Part II: The Sichuan railway crisis: prelude to revolution
	4. Zaifeng and late Qing railway policy
		Supporting the Railway Protection Movement in Hunan and Hubei
		Launching the state-owned railway policy
		Carrying out the nationalization policy
		Conclusion
		Notes
Part III: The Hubei reforms and the Wuchang Uprising
	5. The New Policies in Hubei
		The 1911 Revolution in the long-term perspective of Hubei’s New Policies
		Promoting industrialization
			1. Hanyang ironworks: Asia’s first unified steel corporation
			2. Hanyang arsenal
			3. Four textiles bureaus
			4. Wuchang mint
		Building the New Army
			1. New conscription policies
			2. Specialized army units organized in a vertical formation
			3. Modern military education
			4. An elite army
			5. Revolutionary activities in the Hubei New Army
		Promoting new education
			1. Reforming traditional academies (shuyuan) and opening new schools
			2. Sending students abroad
			3. New intellectual associations
		The irony of Zhang Zhidong’s New Policies in Hubei
		Notes
	6. Tang Hualong in the 1911 Revolution
		Futile petitions in a national crisis
		The Wuchang Uprising: a call to the nation
		Preparing for a new China
			1. Promptly establishing order to stabilize the situation
			2. Reorganizing the military government and clarifying responsibilities
			3. Active engagement in diplomacy
			4. Preparing the Hankou security forces to resist the Qing army
			5. Inducing the navy to abandon its confrontation of the revolution
			6. Mediating between Li Yuanhong and Huang Xing to promote the status
of Hubei
			7. Dealing with the change of governors in Hunan
			8. Developing a constitution for Hubei
			9. Negotiations with Yuan Shikai’s delegates
		Frustration and anger beyond comprehension
		The frustrations of a patriot
		Notes
Part IV: Qing officials and the revolution
	7. Provincial officials in 1911–12: their backgrounds and reactions to revolution—an inquiry into the structure of “weak center, weak regions” in the late Qing
		Overview of governors and governors-general after the Wuchang Uprising
		Governors’-general and governors’ reactions to revolution
			1. Flight and dismissal
			2. Leaving office after the revolution
			3. Joining the rebels and declaring independence of the Qing
			4. Suicide or death
			5. Resignation claiming illness
			6. Departure after the abdication of the Qing Emperor
		A structure of “weak center, weak regions” and the collapse of Qing
		Notes
	8. On the mentalities of Manchu and Mongol elites during the 1911 Revolution
		Manchu and Mongol elite reponses to revolution
			1. Martyrdom (xunjie sijun)
			2. Enduring in silence (yinren)
			3. Remaining unperturbed (chuzhi tairan)
			4. Waiting for restoration
		All is lost”
			1. Manchu and Mongol elites’ perception of the national and international situation
			2. Replacing “dynasty” with “family” and protecting one’s own interest
		A storm follows the calm
			1. Its fighting spirit gone, a group loses power
			2. Long-term Manchu-Han contradiction
			3. The loss of political equilibrium
			4. The lack of a crisis response mechanism
		Conclusion
		Notes
Part V: Yuan Shikai and the 1911 Revolution
	9. Zaifeng’s dismissal of Yuan Shikai and Sino–U.S.–Japanese diplomacy
		The dismissal of Yuan Shikai by Zaifeng
		The attitude and response of the U.S. government
		The failure of the policy of aligning with the United States against Japan
		The struggle over the re-emergence of Yuan Shikai
		Notes
	10. The Qing’s three armies after the Wuchang Uprising
		The initial plan for three armies
		The first army at the front
			Combat awards for the First Army
		The second army is never formed
			1. The twentieth division
			2. The second mixed brigade
			3. The third division
			4. The fifth division
			5. The Qing court acknowledges the failure to establish the Second Army
		The impact of the failure to organize the second army
			1. Generals at the front hope for the Second Army
			2. The Second Army and the civil war
		Reflections on the Qing government’s collapse
		Notes
	11. Yuan Shikai and the February 1912 “Beijing Mutiny”
		The controversy over the site of the republican capital
		Yuan Shikai’s preparations to travel to the south
		Yuan Shikai’s behavior during the mutiny
		The effect of the mutiny on Yuan Shikai’s reputation
		Rewriting the history of the transition from Qing abdication to Yuan Shikai’s inauguration
		Notes
Part VI: The revolution and the frontier
	12. The “political game” and “state-building”: outer Mongolia during the 1911 Revolution
		State-building practice of Outer Mongolia
		Early republican policy toward Outer Mongolia
			1. From “expel the Manchus” (pai-Man) to a “Republic of Five Nationalities” (wuzu gonghe), to the “Chinese people” (Zhonghua minzu)
			2. Conciliating the elites of Mongolia
			3. Establishing the legal status of Outer Mongolia
			4. Strengthening the administration of Outer Mongolia and other frontier regions
			5. Central government integration of education in Outer Mongolia
		The Russia–Mongolia Agreement and the ambiguous status of Outer Mongolian state-building
		The China–Russia–Mongolia Agreement overrides Outer Mongolia’s state-building experience
		Conclusion
		Notes
Glossary
Index