Child Psychology: A Contemporary Viewpoint

Title
Contents
1. Child Development: Themes, Theories, and Methods
	THEMES OF DEVELOPMENT
	Origins of Behavior: Biological Versus Environmental Infl uences
	Pattern of Developmental Change: Continuity Versus Discontinuity
	Forces That Affect Developmental Change: Individual Characteristics Versus Contextual Infl uences
	THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVES ON DEVELOPMENT
	Structural-Organismic Perspectives
	Learning Perspectives
	Dynamic Systems Perspectives
	Contextual Perspectives
	Box 1-1 Risk and Resilience: Children of the Great Depression
	Ethological and Evolutionary Approaches
	MAKING THE CONNECTIONS 1-1
	THEMES AND THEORIES: A FINAL COMMENT
	RESEARCH METHODS IN CHILD PSYCHOLOGY
	Selecting a Sample
	Methods of Gathering Data About Children
	Research Design: Establishing Patterns and Causes
	Box 1-2 Child Psychology in Action: How Can We Make Better Use of Research on Children and Television and Internet Use?
	Studying Change Over Time
	THE ETHICS OF RESEARCH WITH CHILDREN
	MAKING THE CONNECTIONS 1-2
	SUMMARY
2. Heredity and the Environment
	THE PROCESS OF GENETIC TRANSMISSION
	Chromosomes and Genes
	Genes, DNA, and Proteins
	GENETIC INFLUENCES ON DEVELOPMENT
	The Transmission of Traits: A Basic Model
	Genes on the Sex Chromosomes: Exceptions to the Rule
	Interactions Among Genes
	Genetic Disorders
	Box 2-1 Risk and Resilience: Sickle-Cell Anemia: A Double-Edged Sword
	GENETIC COUNSELING AND GENETIC ENGINEERING
	Prenatal Diagnostic Techniques
	Box 2-2 Child Psychology in Action: The New Reproductive Technologies
	Gene Therapy
	HEREDITY-ENVIRONMENT INTERACTIONS
	Box 2-3 Child Psychology in Action: The Human Genome Project
	How the Environment Infl uences the Expression of Genes
	How Genetic Makeup Helps to Shape Environment
	HEREDITY, ENVIRONMENT, AND INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES
	Methods of Studying Individual Differences
	Some Individual Differences and Their Contributors
	MAKING THE CONNECTIONS 2
	SUMMARY
3. Prenatal Development and Birth
	STAGES OF PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT
	The Zygote
	The Embryo
	The Fetus
	RISKS IN THE PRENATAL ENVIRONMENT
	Environmental Dangers
	TURNING POINTS: An Overview of Prenatal Development
	Maternal Factors
	Box 3-1 Child Psychology in Action: Prenatal Health Care and Infant Mortality
	BIRTH AND THE BEGINNINGS OF LIFE
	Labor and Delivery
	Prematurity and Low Birthweight
	Box 3-2 Child Psychology in Action: Of Babies and Bears and Postnatal Care
	Box 3-3 Risk and Resilience: What Factors Help Children Overcome Early Adversity?
	VULNERABILITY AND RESILIENCE IN CHILDREN AT RISK
	Making the Connections 3
	SUMMARY
4. Infancy: Sensation, Perception, and Learning
	THE NEWBORN
	A New Baby’s Refl exes
	Infant States
	Box 4-1 Child Psychology in Action: Preventing Sudden Infant Death Syndrome (SIDS)
	How to Soothe an Infant
	Evaluating the Newborn’s Health and Capabilities
	THE INFANT’S SENSORY AND PERCEPTUAL CAPACITIES
	Unlocking the Secrets of Babies’ Sensory Capabilities
	TURNING POINTS: The Development of Sensation, Perception, and Early Learning
	Hearing: Babies Are Good Listeners
	Box 4-2 Child Psychology in Action: Can Infants Learn Even before They’re Born?
	Vision: How Babies See Their Worlds
	Smell, Taste, and Touch
	Intermodal Perception: How Infants Coordinate Sensory Information
	EARLY LEARNING AND MEMORY
	Classical and Operant Conditioning
	Learning Through Imitation
	Memory in Babies
	Making the Connections 4
	SUMMARY
5. The Child’s Growth: Brain, Body, Motor Skills, and Sexual Maturation
	BRAIN DEVELOPMENT IN INFANCY
	Neurons and Synapses
	TURNING POINTS: Growth of the Child’s Brain, Body, and Motor Skills
	Sequential Development of the Brain
	Hemispheric Specialization
	The Brain’s Plasticity: Experience and Brain Development
	MOTOR DEVELOPMENT
	Hand Skills
	Locomotion
	How Locomotion Affects Other Aspects of Development
	The Role of Experience and Culture
	Box 5-1 Risk and Resilience: Blind Infants Struggle to “See”
	PHYSICAL GROWTH
	Do Genes Affect Height and Weight?
	The Infl uence of Environmental Factors
	People Are Growing Taller
	Are We Growing Heavier? Obesity and Eating Disorders
	Box 5-2 Child Psychology in Action: Learning Not to “Clean Your Plate”
	SEXUAL MATURATION
	The Onset of Sexual Maturity
	What Determines the Timing of Puberty?
	The Effects of Early and Late Maturation
	MAKING THE CONNECTIONS 5
	SUMMARY
6. Emotional Development and Attachment
	EARLY EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT
	Why Are Emotions Important?
	Primary and Secondary Emotions
	Perspectives on Emotional Development
	The Development of Emotional Expressions
	DEVELOPMENT OF PRIMARY EMOTIONS
	Positive Primary Emotions: Smiling and Laughter
	TURNING POINTS: The Evolution of Emotional Expression and the Sense of Self
	Negative Primary Emotions: Fear, Anger, and Sadness
	DEVELOPMENT OF SECONDARY EMOTIONS
	Box 6-1 Child Psychology in Action: Coping with Homesickness
	INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES IN EMOTIONS
	RECOGNIZING EMOTIONS IN OTHERS
	EMOTIONAL REGULATION AND EMOTIONAL DISPLAY RULES
	HOW CHILDREN THINK ABOUT EMOTIONS
	Matching Emotions to Situations: Emotional Scripts
	Multiple Emotions, Multiple Causes
	THE FAMILY’S ROLE IN EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT
	THE DEVELOPMENT OF ATTACHMENT
	Theories of Attachment
	How Attachment Evolves
	Attachment to Fathers
	Other Objects of Attachment
	THE NATURE AND QUALITY OF ATTACHMENT
	Methods of Assessing Attachment Relationships
	Box 6-2 Risk and Resilience: Peers as Attachment Figures
	The Parents’ Role in the Quality of Attachment
	Box 6-3 Perspectives on Diversity: Attachment Types in Different Cultures
	The Effect of Infant Temperament
	Stability in the Quality of Attachment
	The Consequences of Attachment Quality
	MULTIPLE CAREGIVERS AND ATTACHMENT: THE EFFECTS OF CHILD CARE
	MAKING THE CONNECTIONS 6
	SUMMARY
7. Language and Communication
	THE COMPONENTS OF LANGUAGE: PHONOLOGY, SEMANTICS, GRAMMAR, AND PRAGMATICS
	THEORIES OF LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT
	The Learning View: Claims and Limitations
	The Nativist View: Claims and Limitations
	Box 7-1 Child Psychology in Action: Can Children Create New Languages?
	The Interactionist View
	FACILITATING CHILDREN’S LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT
	THE ANTECEDENTS OF LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT
	Preverbal Communication
	Early Language Comprehension
	Babbling and Other Early Sounds
	SEMANTIC DEVELOPMENT: THE POWER OF WORDS
	How Children Acquire Words
	Box 7-2 Risk and Resilience: Children at Risk for Failure to Develop Language
	What Kinds of Words Do Children Learn First?
	Errors in Early Word Use
	THE ACQUISITION OF GRAMMAR: FROM WORDS TO SENTENCES
	TURNING POINTS: Language Milestones from Infancy to Middle Childhood
	Can One Word Express a Complete Thought?
	Two-Word Sentences
	Learning the Rules
	Box 7-3 Child Psychology in Action: Language Learning in the Deaf
	Approaching Formal Grammar
	How Children Make Sense of What They Hear
	LEARNING THE SOCIAL USES OF LANGUAGE
	The Rules of Pragmatics
	Learning to Adjust Speech to Audience
	Learning to Listen Critically
	METALINGUISTIC AWARENESS: KNOWING ABOUT LANGUAGE
	BILINGUALISM AND LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT
	MAKING THE CONNECTIONS 7
	SUMMARY
8. Cognitive Development: Piaget and Vygotsky
	PIAGET’S THEORY OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
	PIAGET’S MAIN TENET: THE CHILD ACTIVELY SEEKS KNOWLEDGE
	Cognitive Organization
	Cognitive Adaptation
	TURNING POINTS: The Child’s Cognitive Development from Infancy through Late Childhood
	THE STAGES OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
	The Sensorimotor Stage
	The Preoperational Stage
	The Stage of Concrete Operations
	The Stage of Formal Operations
	PIAGETIAN CONCEPTS AND SOCIAL COGNITION
	The Self as Distinct From Others
	Role Taking: Understanding Others’ Perspectives
	Theory of Mind
	Do Sociocultural Experiences Infl uence the Development of Social Cognition?
	EVALUATION OF PIAGET’S THEORY
	Strengths of the Theory
	Limitations of the Theory
	Overall Assessment
	VYGOTSKY’S SOCIOCULTURAL THEORY OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
	Elementary and Higher Mental Functions
	The Zone of Proximal Development
	The Role of Culture
	Box 8-1 Child Psychology in Action: Who Is Better at Helping Children Develop Effi cient Plans: Adult or Peer Partners?
	Box 8-2 Risk and Resilience: Street Math and School Math in Brazil
	The Role of Language
	EVALUATION OF VYGOTSKY’S THEORY
	Strengths of the Theory
	Does Vygotsky’s Theory Describe Developmental Change?
	MAKING THE CONNECTIONS 8
	Overall Assessment
	SUMMARY
9. Cognitive Development: The Information-Processing Approach
	INFORMATION-PROCESSING THEORY
	Basic Assumptions of the Information-Processing Approach
	Information-Processing Models
	Cognitive Processes: What Are They? How Do They Contribute to Development?
	The Roles of the Executive Control Process and the Knowledge Base in Information Processing
	DEVELOPMENTAL CHANGES IN SOME SIGNIFICANT COGNITIVE ABILITIES
	Attention
	TURNING POINTS: Some Cognitive Achievements as Seen from the Information-Processing View
	Memory
	Box 9-1 Child Psychology in Action: Should Young Children Testify in Court?
	Problem Solving and Reasoning
	Box 9-2 Child Psychology in Action: It’s Easier to Count in Chinese Than in English
	METACOGNITION
	Knowledge About the Task
	Knowledge About Strategies
	MAKING THE CONNECTIONS 9
	SUMMARY
10. Intelligence and Achievement
	THEORIES OF INTELLIGENCE
	The Factor Analytic Approach
	The Information-Processing Approach: Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory
	Gardner’s Theory of Multiple Intelligences
	TESTING INTELLIGENCE
	Measuring Infant Intelligence
	The Stanford-Binet Test
	The Wechsler Scales
	The Kaufman Assessment Battery for Children
	Constructing Measures of Intelligence
	Stability of Measured Intelligence
	WHY DO PEOPLE DIFFER IN MEASURED INTELLIGENCE?
	How Much of Intelligence Is Inherited?
	Environmental Factors
	ETHNICITY, SOCIAL CLASS, AND INTELLECTUAL PERFORMANCE
	Are Intelligence Tests Biased Against Minority Groups?
	The Effect of Context and Cultural Background on Intellectual Performance
	Box 10-1 Psychology in Action: Making the Grade in Japan, Taiwan, and the United States
	Social-Class Infl uences on Intellectual Performance
	ACHIEVEMENT MOTIVATION AND INTELLECTUAL PERFORMANCE
	COGNITIVE INTERVENTION STUDIES
	Head Start and Similar Programs
	Characteristics of Successful Intervention Programs
	BEYOND THE NORMS: GIFTEDNESS AND MENTAL RETARDATION
	The Intellectually Gifted
	Children With Intellectual Defi cits
	Box 10-2 Risk and Resilience: Early Intervention with Children at Risk
	Children With Learning Disabilities
	CREATIVITY
	Defi nitions and Theories
	Relationship Between Creativity and Intelligence
	Are Children Creative?
	MAKING THE CONNECTIONS 10
	SUMMARY
11. The Family
	THE FAMILY SYSTEM
	The Ecological Systems Perspective
	The Marital System
	The Parent-Child System
	Box 11-1 Child Psychology in Action: Helping New Couples Cope with Becoming Parents
	Box 11-2 Perspectives on Diversity: Parental Child- Rearing Styles Carry Different Meanings in Different Cultures
	The Coparenting System
	The Sibling System
	The Family Unit as an Agent of Children’s Socialization: Family Stories and Rituals
	SOCIAL CLASS, ETHNICITY, AND SOCIALIZATION
	Poverty and Powerlessness
	Cultural Patterns in Child-Rearing
	THE CHANGING AMERICAN FAMILY
	Parental Employment and Child Development
	Marital Transitions
	Adoption: Another Route to Parenthood
	Gay and Lesbian Parents
	Teen Pregnancy: Children Having Children
	CHILD ABUSE WITHIN THE FAMILY
	Abused Children and Their Parents
	The Ecology of Child Abuse
	Consequences of Abuse
	MAKING THE CONNECTIONS 11
	Prevention of Child Abuse
	SUMMARY
12. Expanding the Social World: Peers and Friends
	HOW PEER INTERACTIONS BEGIN: DEVELOPMENTAL PATTERNS
	Infancy: First Social Encounters
	Social Exchange Among Toddlers
	TURNING POINTS: Peer Relationships and the Development of Friendships
	Preschool and Elementary School Society
	HOW DO PEERS HELP TO SOCIALIZE CHILDREN?
	Modeling Behaviors
	Teaching and Reinforcing
	Social Comparison and the Developing Self
	PEER ACCEPTANCE
	How Do We Study Peer Acceptance?
	Factors That Affect Peer Status
	BOX 12-1 Risk and Resilience: Victimization by Peers: It Helps to Have Friends
	Consequences of Being Unpopular
	PROMOTERS OF PEER ACCEPTANCE: PARENTS AND TEACHERS
	Parents Are Coaches
	Parents Are Social Arrangers
	Teachers Can Facilitate Healthy Social Interaction
	WHEN PEERS BECOME FRIENDS
	Expectations and Obligations of Friendship
	Making Friends
	BOX 12-2 Child Psychology in Action: When “Love Thy Neighbor” Fails: Peers as Mutual Enemies
	Friendships Change Over Time
	Losing Friends
	The Pros and Cons of Friendship
	The Romantic Relationship: A Developmental Milestone
	PARENTS OR PEERS? WHO ARE MOST INFLUENTIAL?
	BEYOND DYADIC FRIENDSHIPS: THE FORMATION OF GROUPS
	Dominance Hierarchies
	Cliques and Crowds
	PEER GROUPS IN DIFFERENT CULTURES
	BOX 12-3 Perspectives on Diversity: Cross- Cultural Variations in Children’s Peer Relationships
	MAKING THE CONNECTIONS 12
	SUMMARY
13. Gender Roles and Gender Differences
	DEFINING SEX AND GENDER
	GENDER-ROLE STANDARDS AND STEREOTYPES
	GENDER DIFFERENCES IN DEVELOPMENT
	Developmental Patterns of Gender Typing
	Stability of Gender Typing
	Box 13-1 Child Psychology in Action: Will We Let Computers Widen the Gender Gap?
	Gender Differences in Abilities
	BIOLOGICAL FACTORS IN GENDER DIFFERENCES
	Hormones and Social Behavior
	Hormones and Cognitive Skills
	Brain Lateralization and Gender Differences
	Biological Programming and Cultural Expectations
	COGNITIVE FACTORS IN GENDER TYPING
	TURNING POINTS: Development of Gender Roles and Gender Typing
	Kohlberg’s Cognitive Developmental Theory
	Gender-Schema Theory: An Information-Processing Approach
	INFLUENCE OF THE FAMILY ON GENDER TYPING
	Parents’ Infl uence on Children’s Gender-Typed Choices
	Parents’ Behavior Toward Girls and Boys
	When One Parent Is Absent
	Gender Roles in Children of Gay and Lesbian Parents
	Siblings as Gender Socialization Agents
	EXTRAFAMILIAL INFLUENCES ON GENDER ROLES
	Books and Television
	Peers, Gender Roles, and Gender Segregation
	Schools and Teachers
	SEXUAL ORIENTATION AND IDENTITY
	ANDROGYNY
	Box 13-2 Risk and Resilience: Child-Rearing in Countercultural Families
	MAKING THE CONNECTIONS 13
	SUMMARY
14. Morality, Altruism, and Aggression
	AN OVERVIEW OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT
	COGNITIVE THEORIES OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT
	Jean Piaget’s Cognitive Theory of Moral Development
	Lawrence Kohlberg’s Cognitive Theory of Moral Development
	Box 14-1 Perspectives on Diversity: Justice Versus Interpersonal Obligations: India and the United States
	Distinguishing Moral Judgments from Other Social Rules
	Do Moral Judgments Always Lead to Moral Behavior?
	THE BEHAVIORAL SIDE OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT
	Self-Regulation and the Delay of Gratifi cation
	The Affective Side of Morality
	Consistency Across Situations
	THE EVOLUTION OF PROSOCIAL AND ALTRUISTIC BEHAVIORS
	TURNING POINTS: Prosocial and Altruistic Behavior
	How Prosocial Behavior Evolves
	Are Girls More Prosocial Than Boys?
	Determinants of Prosocial Development
	Box 14-2 Child Psychology in Action: How Parents Can Teach Children Prosocial Behavior
	Prosocial Reasoning
	THE DEVELOPMENT OF AGGRESSION
	How Aggressive Behavior Develops in Children
	TURNING POINTS: The Development of Aggressive Behavior
	Gender Differences in Aggression
	Origins of Aggressive Behavior
	Control of Aggression
	Box 14-3 Child Psychology in Action: Reducing Bullying in Schools
	MAKING THE CONNECTIONS 14
	SUMMARY
15. Developmental Psychopathology
	THE DEVELOPMENTAL APPROACH TO PSYCHOPATHOLOGY
	What Is Abnormal?
	The Medical Model
	Abnormality as Deviation from the Average
	Box 15-1 Perspectives on Diversity: Thai and American Views on Child Behavior Problems
	Abnormality as Deviation from the Ideal
	The Social Judgment of Child Psychopathology
	Continuity over Time
	CLASSIFYING CHILD PSYCHOPATHOLOGY
	The Diagnostic Approach
	The Empirical Method
	SOME PSYCHOLOGICAL DISORDERS THAT AFFECT CHILDREN
	Conduct Disorders
	Attention Defi cit/Hyperactivity Disorder
	Box 15-2 Child Psychology in Action: Treating Serious Multiproblem Juvenile Offenders
	Depression in Childhood
	Box 15-3 Risk and Resilience: Does a Culture of Affl uence Protect Children and Youth from the Risk of Psychopathology?
	Autism Spectrum Disorders
	MAKING THE CONNECTIONS 15
	SUMMARY
Epilogue
Glossary
References
Credits
Name Index
Subject Index