Chemistry: The Molecular Science

Cover Page......Page 1
Title Page......Page 4
Copyright Page......Page 6
About the Authors......Page 8
Preface......Page 16
Brief Contents......Page 9
Contents......Page 10
1 The Nature of Chemistry......Page 42
1.1 Why Care About Chemistry?......Page 43
1.2 Molecular Medicine......Page 44
1.3 How Science Is Done......Page 47
Melting and Boiling Point......Page 48
Density......Page 49
Measurements and Calculations: Dimensional Analysis......Page 50
1.5 Chemical Changes and Chemical Properties\n......Page 52
Energy......Page 53
1.6 Classifying Matter: Substances and Mixtures......Page 54
Separation and Purification......Page 55
1.7 Classifying Matter: Elements and Compounds......Page 56
1.8 Nanoscale Theories and Models......Page 58
States of Matter: Solids, Liquids, and Gases......Page 60
CHEMISTRY IN THE NEWS Atomic Scale Electric Switches......Page 62
ESTIMATION How Tiny Are Atoms and Molecules?......Page 64
Types of Elements......Page 65
Elements That Consist of Molecules......Page 66
PORTRAIT OF A SCIENTIST Sir Harold Kroto......Page 67
1.11 Communicating Chemistry: Symbolism......Page 68
1.12 Modern Chemical Sciences......Page 70
PORTRAIT OF A SCIENTIST Susan Band Horwitz......Page 45
2 Atoms and Elements......Page 81
Radioactivity......Page 82
Electrons......Page 83
The Nucleus......Page 84
Neutrons......Page 85
PORTRAIT OF A SCIENTIST Ernest Rutherford......Page 86
CHEMISTRY IN THE NEWS The Kilogram Redefined......Page 91
Significant Figures in Calculations......Page 92
Rules for Rounding......Page 93
2.5 Atomic Numbers and Mass Numbers......Page 94
TOOLS OF CHEMISTRY Mass Spectrometer......Page 97
2.7 Amounts of Substances: The Mole......Page 100
2.8 Molar Mass and Problem Solving......Page 102
PORTRAIT OF A SCIENTIST Dmitri Mendeleev......Page 103
The Alkali Metals (Group 1A) and Alkaline-Earth Metals (Group 2A)......Page 104
Groups 3A to 6A......Page 105
CHEMISTRY IN THE NEWS Periodic Table Stamp......Page 107
TOOLS OF CHEMISTRY Scanning Tunneling Microscopy and Atomic Force Microscopy......Page 87
ESTIMATION The Size of Avogadro’s Number......Page 101
CHEMISTRY YOU CAN DO Preparing a Pure Sample of an Element......Page 108
3 Chemical Compounds......Page 116
Molecular Formulas......Page 117
3.2 Naming Binary Inorganic Compounds......Page 120
3.3 Hydrocarbons......Page 121
Straight-Chain and Branched-Chain Isomers of Alkanes......Page 124
ESTIMATION Number of Alkane Isomers......Page 125
Monatomic Ions......Page 126
Polyatomic Ions......Page 128
Writing Formulas for Ionic Compounds......Page 129
Naming Negative Ions......Page 131
Naming Ionic Compounds......Page 132
Ionic Compounds......Page 134
Ionic Compounds in Aqueous Solution: Electrolytes......Page 137
Molar Mass of Molecular Compounds......Page 138
ESTIMATION Is Each Snowflake Unique?......Page 139
Gram-Mole Conversions......Page 140
Moles of Ionic Hydrates......Page 142
3.9 Percent Composition......Page 143
3.10 Determining Empirical and Molecular Formulas......Page 144
3.11 The Biological Periodic Table......Page 148
The Dietary Minerals......Page 149
CHEMISTRY IN THE NEWS Airport Runway Deicer Shortage......Page 133
CHEMISTRY IN THE NEWS Removing Arsenic from Drinking Water......Page 150
4 Quantities of Reactants and Products......Page 161
4.1 Chemical Equations......Page 162
PORTRAIT OF A SCIENTIST Antoine Lavoisier......Page 163
Combination Reactions......Page 164
Decomposition Reactions......Page 165
Displacement Reactions......Page 167
Exchange Reactions......Page 168
4.3 Balancing Chemical Equations......Page 169
4.4 The Mole and Chemical Reactions:The Macro-Nano Connection......Page 172
ESTIMATION How Much CO2 Is Produced by Your Car?......Page 178
Mass Method......Page 180
4.6 Evaluating the Success of a Synthesis: Percent Yield......Page 183
Atom Economy—Another Approach to Tracing Starting Materials......Page 185
4.7 Percent Composition and Empirical Formulas......Page 186
Determining Formulas from Experimental Data......Page 189
PORTRAIT OF A SCIENTIST Alfred Nobel......Page 166
CHEMISTRY IN THE NEWS Smothering Fire—Water That Isn’t Wet......Page 182
CHEMISTRY YOU CAN DO Vinegar and Baking Soda: A Stoichiometry Experiment......Page 184
5 Chemical Reactions......Page 202
Aqueous Solubility of Ionic Compounds......Page 203
Precipitation Reactions......Page 206
Net Ionic Equations......Page 207
5.2 Acids, Bases, and Acid-Base Exchange Reactions......Page 209
Acids......Page 210
Bases......Page 212
Neutralization Reactions......Page 213
Net Ionic Equations for Acid-Base Reactions......Page 215
Gas-Forming Exchange Reactions......Page 217
CHEMISTRY IN THE NEWS Stream Cleaning with Chemistry......Page 218
Redox Reactions and Electron Transfer......Page 219
Common Oxidizing and Reducing Agents......Page 220
5.4 Oxidation Numbers and Redox Reactions......Page 224
5.5 Displacement Reactions, Redox, and the Activity Series......Page 227
5.6 Solution Concentration......Page 230
CHEMISTRY YOU CAN DO Pennies, Redox, and the Activity Series of Metals......Page 231
Preparing a Solution of Known Molarity by Diluting a More Concentrated One......Page 233
5.7 Molarity and Reactions in Aqueous Solutions......Page 237
5.8 Aqueous Solution Titrations......Page 239
6 Energy and Chemical Reactions......Page 252
6.1 The Nature of Energy......Page 253
PORTRAIT OF A SCIENTIST James P. Joule......Page 254
6.2 Conservation of Energy......Page 256
Energy, Temperature, and Heating......Page 257
Calculating Thermodynamic Changes......Page 259
Conservation of Energy and Chemical Reactions......Page 260
6.3 Heat Capacity......Page 261
Specific Heat Capacity......Page 262
Molar Heat Capacity......Page 263
Conservation of Energy and Changes of State......Page 265
Enthalpy: Heat Transfer at Constant Pressure......Page 267
Freezing and Melting (Fusion)......Page 268
Vaporization and Condensation......Page 269
State Functions and Path Independence......Page 270
6.5 Thermochemical Expressions......Page 271
6.6 Enthalpy Changes for Chemical Reactions......Page 273
6.7 Where Does the Energy Come From?......Page 277
6.8 Measuring Enthalpy Changes: Calorimetry......Page 279
6.9 Hess’s Law......Page 283
6.10 Standard Molar Enthalpies of Formation......Page 285
6.11 Chemical Fuels for Home and Industry......Page 290
6.12 Foods: Fuels for Our Bodies......Page 295
ESTIMATION Earth’s Kinetic Energy......Page 255
CHEMISTRY YOU CAN DO Work and Volume Change......Page 272
CHEMISTRY YOU CAN DO Rusting and Heating......Page 276
PORTRAIT OF A SCIENTIST Reatha Clark King......Page 288
ESTIMATION Burning Coal......Page 294
CHEMISTRY IN THE NEWS Charge Your iPod with a Wave of Your Hand......Page 297
7 Electron Configurations and the Periodic Table......Page 312
7.1 Electromagnetic Radiation and Matter......Page 313
7.2 Planck’s Quantum Theory......Page 315
The Photoelectric Effect......Page 317
CHEMISTRY IN THE NEWS Using an Ultra-Fast Laser to Make a More Efficient Incandescent Light Bulb......Page 320
CHEMISTRY YOU CAN DO Using a Compact Disc (CD) as a Diffraction Grating......Page 326
First Quantum Number, n: Principal Energy Levels......Page 329
Second Quantum Number, ℓ: Atomic Orbital Shapes......Page 330
Third Quantum Number, m[sub(ℓ)]: Orientation of Atomic Orbitals......Page 331
Fourth Quantum Number, m[sub(s)]: Electron Spin......Page 333
s Atomic Orbitals (ℓ= 0)......Page 335
d Atomic Orbitals (ℓ= 2)......Page 336
Electron Configurations of Main Group Elements......Page 337
Elements with Incompletely Filled f Atomic Orbitals......Page 340
Valence Electrons......Page 341
7.8 Ion Electron Configurations......Page 343
Transition Metal Ions......Page 345
Paramagnetism and Unpaired Electrons......Page 346
Atomic Radii of the Main Group Elements......Page 347
Atomic Radii of Transition Metals......Page 349
7.10 Periodic Trends: Ionic Radii......Page 350
7.11 Periodic Trends: Ionization Energies......Page 352
7.12 Periodic Trends: Electron Affinities......Page 355
7.13 Energy Considerations in Ionic Compound Formation......Page 356
PORTRAIT OF A SCIENTIST Niels Bohr......Page 325
8 Covalent Bonding......Page 368
8.1 Covalent Bonding......Page 369
PORTRAIT OF A SCIENTIST Gilbert Newton Lewis......Page 370
8.3 Single Covalent Bonds in Hydrocarbons......Page 375
8.4 Multiple Covalent Bonds......Page 378
8.5 Multiple Covalent Bonds in Hydrocarbons......Page 380
Double Bonds and Isomerism......Page 381
Bond Length......Page 383
Bond Enthalpies......Page 385
PORTRAIT OF A SCIENTIST Linus Pauling......Page 388
8.8 Formal Charge......Page 391
8.9 Lewis Structures and Resonance......Page 393
Resonance and the Structure of Benzene......Page 394
8.10 Exceptions to the Octet Rule......Page 396
CHEMISTRY IN THE NEWS Self-Darkening Eyeglasses......Page 397
More Than Eight Valence Electrons......Page 398
Constitutional Isomers of Aromatic Compounds......Page 400
8.12 Molecular Orbital Theory......Page 401
Molecular Orbitals for Diatomic Molecules......Page 402
Polyatomic Molecules; Delocalized π Electrons......Page 406
9 Molecular Structures......Page 416
9.1 Using Molecular Models......Page 417
Central Atoms with Only Bonding Pairs......Page 418
Central Atoms with Bonding Pairs and Lone Pairs......Page 421
Expanded Octets: Central Atoms with Five or Six Electron Pairs......Page 424
Chiral Molecules......Page 428
9.3 Atomic Orbitals Consistent with Molecular Shapes: Hybridization......Page 431
sp2 Hybrid Orbitals......Page 432
sp3 Hybrid Orbitals......Page 433
Expanded Octets and Hybridization......Page 435
9.4 Hybridization in Molecules with Multiple Bonds......Page 436
9.5 Molecular Polarity......Page 439
9.6 Noncovalent Interactions and Forces Between Molecules......Page 443
London (Dispersion) Forces......Page 444
Dipole-Dipole Attractions......Page 445
Hydrogen Bonds......Page 447
Noncovalent Forces in Living Cells......Page 450
CHEMISTRY YOU CAN DO Molecular Structure and Biological Activity......Page 451
The Double Helix: The Watson-Crick Model......Page 452
ESTIMATION Base Pairs and DNA......Page 454
TOOLS OF CHEMISTRY Infrared Spectroscopy......Page 427
PORTRAIT OF A SCIENTIST Peter Debye......Page 440
TOOLS OF CHEMISTRY Ultraviolet-Visible Spectroscopy......Page 442
CHEMISTRY IN THE NEWS Icy Pentagons......Page 448
PORTRAIT OF A SCIENTIST Rosalind Franklin......Page 453
10 Gases and the Atmosphere......Page 465
10.1 The Atmosphere......Page 466
ESTIMATION Thickness of Earth’s Atmosphere......Page 467
10.2 Gas Pressure......Page 468
10.3 Kinetic-Molecular Theory......Page 470
The Pressure-Volume Relationship: Boyle’s Law......Page 474
The Temperature-Volume Relationship: Charles’s Law......Page 475
The Amount-Volume Relationship: Avogadro’s Law......Page 477
The Law of Combining Volumes......Page 478
The Ideal Gas Law......Page 479
10.5 Quantities of Gases in Chemical Reactions......Page 483
10.6 Gas Density and Molar Mass......Page 485
CHEMISTRY YOU CAN DO Helium-Filled Balloon in Car......Page 487
Collecting a Gas over Water......Page 491
10.8 The Behavior of Real Gases......Page 492
10.9 Ozone and Stratospheric Ozone Depletion......Page 495
PORTRAIT OF A SCIENTIST F. Sherwood Rowland......Page 496
PORTRAIT OF A SCIENTIST Susan Solomon......Page 497
Primary Pollutants......Page 498
Ozone: A Secondary Pollutant in the Troposphere......Page 500
Urban Air Pollution—Photochemical Smog......Page 501
Where Do We Stand on Air Quality Now?......Page 503
The Greenhouse Effect......Page 504
Global Warming......Page 507
CHEMISTRY IN THE NEWS Nitrogen in Tires......Page 472
PORTRAIT OF A SCIENTIST Jacques Alexandre Cesar Charles......Page 476
ESTIMATION Helium Balloon Buoyancy......Page 486
CHEMISTRY YOU CAN DO Particle Size and Visibility......Page 499
CHEMISTRY IN THE NEWS Removing CO2 from the Air......Page 509
11 Liquids, Solids, and Materials......Page 519
11.1 The Liquid State......Page 520
CHEMISTRY IN THE NEWS Surface Tension and Bird Feeding......Page 522
Clausius-Clapeyron Equation......Page 524
Vapor Pressure of Water and Relative Humidity......Page 525
CHEMISTRY IN THE NEWS Stopping Windshields from Fogging......Page 526
Melting and Freezing......Page 529
Sublimation and Deposition......Page 531
Heating Curve......Page 532
Phase Diagrams......Page 534
CHEMISTRY YOU CAN DO Melting Ice with Pressure......Page 537
11.4 Water: An Important Liquid with Unusual Properties......Page 538
11.5 Types of Solids......Page 540
Unit Cells......Page 542
Unit Cells and Density......Page 544
Ionic Crystal Structures......Page 545
Closest Packing of Spheres......Page 547
Graphite, Diamond, and Fullerenes......Page 549
TOOLS OF CHEMISTRY X-Ray Crystallography......Page 551
11.9 Metals, Semiconductors, and Insulators......Page 553
Electrons in Metals, Semiconductors, and Insulators......Page 555
Superconductors......Page 556
11.10 Silicon and the Chip......Page 558
Ceramics......Page 561
Glasses......Page 562
CHEMISTRY IN THE NEWS Glassy Metals?......Page 563
CHEMISTRY YOU CAN DO Closest Packing of Spheres......Page 548
PORTRAIT OF A SCIENTIST Dorothy Crowfoot Hodgkin......Page 550
12 Fuels, Organic Chemicals, and Polymers......Page 573
Petroleum Refining......Page 574
Octane Number......Page 576
Catalytic Reforming......Page 577
Octane Enhancers......Page 578
Oxygenated and Reformulated Gasolines......Page 579
Natural Gas......Page 581
ESTIMATION Burning Oil......Page 583
CHEMISTRY IN THE NEWS Small Molecules, Big Results: Molecular Possibilities for Drug Development......Page 585
Methanol......Page 586
Hydrogen Bonding in Alcohols......Page 588
Oxidation of Alcohols......Page 589
PORTRAIT OF A SCIENTIST Percy Lavon Julian......Page 591
Carboxylic Acids......Page 594
Triglycerides: Biologically Important Esters......Page 596
Biodiesel Fuel......Page 600
12.6 Synthetic Organic Polymers......Page 601
Addition Polymers......Page 602
Condensation Polymers......Page 609
Recycling Plastics......Page 614
Monosaccharides to Polysaccharides......Page 615
Polysaccharides: Starches and Glycogen......Page 616
Amino Acids to Proteins......Page 617
Primary, Secondary, and Tertiary Structure of a Protein......Page 620
TOOLS OF CHEMISTRY Gas Chromatography......Page 584
TOOLS OF CHEMISTRY Nuclear Magnetic Resonance and Its Applications......Page 592
CHEMISTRY YOU CAN DO Making “Gluep”......Page 608
PORTRAIT OF A SCIENTIST Stephanie Louise Kwolek......Page 613
13 Chemical Kinetics: Rates of Reactions......Page 632
13.1 Reaction Rate......Page 633
Reaction Rates and Stoichiometry......Page 636
Average Rate and Instantaneous Rate......Page 637
The Rate Law......Page 638
Determining Rate Laws from Initial Rates......Page 639
13.3 Rate Law and Order of Reaction......Page 642
The Integrated Rate Law......Page 643
Calculating Concentration or Time from Rate Law......Page 645
Half-Life......Page 647
13.4 A Nanoscale View: Elementary Reactions......Page 648
Unimolecular Reactions......Page 650
Bimolecular Reactions......Page 653
CHEMISTRY IN THE NEWS Bimolecular Collisions Can Be Complicated......Page 655
PORTRAIT OF A SCIENTIST Ahmed H. Zewail......Page 657
Rate Law for a Bimolecular Reaction......Page 659
13.7 Reaction Mechanisms......Page 661
Mechanisms with a Fast Initial Step......Page 662
Kinetics and Mechanism......Page 664
13.8 Catalysts and Reaction Rate......Page 665
Enzyme Activity and Specificity......Page 669
Enzyme Kinetics......Page 671
Special Features of Enzyme Catalysis......Page 672
Inhibition of Enzymes......Page 673
Controlling Automobile Emissions......Page 674
Converting Methane to Liquid Fuel......Page 675
CHEMISTRY YOU CAN DO Simulating First-Order and Zeroth-Order Reactions......Page 646
ESTIMATION Pesticide Decay......Page 649
CHEMISTRY YOU CAN DO Kinetics and Vision......Page 652
CHEMISTRY YOU CAN DO Enzymes: Biological Catalysts......Page 670
CHEMISTRY IN THE NEWS Catalysis and Hydrogen Fuel......Page 676
14 Chemical Equilibrium......Page 695
14.1 Characteristics of Chemical Equilibrium......Page 696
Equilibrium Is Independent of Direction of Approach......Page 697
Catalysts Do Not Affect Equilibrium Concentrations......Page 698
14.2 The Equilibrium Constant......Page 699
Equilibria Involving Pure Liquids and Solids......Page 701
Equilibria in Dilute Solutions......Page 702
Equilibrium Constant Expressions for Related Reactions......Page 703
Equilibrium Constant for a Reaction That Combines Two or More Other Reactions......Page 704
Equilibrium Constants in Terms of Pressure......Page 705
Reaction Tables, Stoichiometry, and Equilibrium Concentrations......Page 706
14.4 The Meaning of the Equilibrium Constant......Page 709
14.5 Using Equilibrium Constants......Page 712
Predicting the Direction of a Reaction......Page 713
Calculating Equilibrium Concentrations......Page 714
Changing Concentrations of Reactants or Product......Page 718
Changing Volume or Pressure in Gaseous Equilibria......Page 722
Changing Volume by Adding Solvent......Page 723
Changing Temperature......Page 724
14.7 Equilibrium at the Nanoscale......Page 727
14.8 Controlling Chemical Reactions: The Haber-Bosch Process......Page 729
CHEMISTRY IN THE NEWS Bacteria Communicate Chemically......Page 720
ESTIMATION Generating Gaseous Fuel......Page 726
PORTRAIT OF A SCIENTIST Fritz Haber......Page 730
15 The Chemistry of Solutes and Solutions......Page 747
Solute-Solvent Interactions......Page 748
15.2 Enthalpy, Entropy, and Dissolving Solutes......Page 752
15.3 Solubility and Equilibrium......Page 754
Dissolving Ionic Solids in Liquids......Page 755
Entropy and the Dissolving of Ionic Compounds in Water......Page 756
Solubility of Gases......Page 757
15.5 Pressure and Dissolving Gases in Liquids: Henry’s Law......Page 758
Mass Fraction and Weight Percent......Page 761
Parts per Million, Billion, and Trillion......Page 762
Molarity......Page 763
Vapor Pressure Lowering......Page 767
Boiling Point Elevation......Page 769
Freezing Point Lowering......Page 770
PORTRAIT OF A SCIENTIST Jacobus Henricus van’t Hoff......Page 773
Osmotic Pressures of Solutions......Page 774
Reverse Osmosis......Page 777
CHEMISTRY IN THE NEWS Thirsty Southern California to Test Desalination......Page 778
CHEMISTRY YOU CAN DO Curdled Colloids......Page 779
15.9 Surfactants......Page 780
15.10 Water: Natural, Clean, and Otherwise......Page 781
Municipal Drinking Water Purification......Page 782
Hard Water: Natural Impurities......Page 784
CHEMISTRY IN THE NEWS Bubbling Away: Catching a Draught......Page 760
16 Acids and Bases......Page 793
16.1 The Brønsted-Lowry Concept of Acids and Bases......Page 794
Water’s Role as Acid or Base......Page 796
Conjugate Acid-Base Pairs......Page 797
Relative Strengths of Acids and Bases......Page 798
16.2 Carboxylic Acids and Amines......Page 800
16.3 The Autoionization of Water......Page 802
16.4 The pH Scale......Page 804
PORTRAIT OF A SCIENTIST Arnold Beckman......Page 806
Acid Ionization Constants......Page 807
Base Ionization Constants......Page 808
Values of Acid and Base Ionization Constants......Page 810
K[sub(a)] Values for Polyprotic Acids......Page 811
Factors Affecting Acid Strength......Page 812
Strengths of Oxoacids......Page 813
Strengths of Carboxylic Acids......Page 814
Amino Acids and Zwitterions......Page 815
16.7 Problem Solving Using K[sub(a)] and K[sub(b)]......Page 816
Relationship between K[sub(a)] and K[sub(b)] Values......Page 820
Salts of Strong Bases and Strong Acids......Page 821
Salts of Strong Bases and Weak Acids......Page 822
Salts of Weak Bases and Strong Acids......Page 824
Salts of Weak Bases and Weak Acids......Page 825
16.9 Lewis Acids and Bases......Page 826
Positive Metal Ions as Lewis Acids......Page 827
Neutral Molecules as Lewis Acids......Page 828
Neutralizing Stomach Acidity......Page 830
ESTIMATION Using an Antacid......Page 831
Household Cleaners......Page 832
Corrosive Household Cleaners......Page 833
CHEMISTRY IN THE NEWS HCl Dissociation at the Smallest Scale......Page 795
CHEMISTRY YOU CAN DO Aspirin and Digestion......Page 835
17 Additional Aqueous Equilibria......Page 844
Buffer Action......Page 845
The pH of Buffer Solutions......Page 847
The Henderson-Hasselbalch Equation......Page 848
Selecting an Appropriate Conjugate Acid-Base Buffer Pair......Page 849
Addition of Acid or Base to a Buffer......Page 851
The pH Change on Addition of Acid or Base to a Buffer......Page 852
Buffer Capacity......Page 855
17.2 Acid-Base Titrations......Page 857
Detection of the Equivalence Point......Page 858
Titration of a Strong Acid with a Strong Base......Page 859
Titration of a Weak Acid with a Strong Base......Page 861
Titration of a Weak Base with a Strong Acid......Page 864
17.3 Acid Rain......Page 865
17.4 Solubility Equilibria and the Solubility Product Constant, K[sub(sp)]\n......Page 867
Solubility and K[sub(sp)]\n......Page 868
pH and Dissolving Slightly Soluble Salts Using Acids......Page 870
Solubility and the Common Ion Effect......Page 872
Complex Ion Formation......Page 875
Amphoterism......Page 877
17.6 Precipitation: Will It Occur?......Page 878
Selective Precipitation of Ions......Page 880
CHEMISTRY IN THE NEWS Ocean Acidification, a Global pH Change Concern......Page 871
18 Thermodynamics: Directionality of Chemical Reactions......Page 889
18.1 Reactant-Favored and Product-Favored Processes......Page 890
18.2 Chemical Reactions and Dispersal of Energy......Page 891
Dispersal of Energy Accompanies Dispersal of Matter......Page 892
18.3 Measuring Dispersal of Energy: Entropy......Page 893
Absolute Entropy Values......Page 895
Qualitative Guidelines for Entropy......Page 897
Predicting Entropy Changes......Page 899
18.5 Entropy and the Second Law of Thermodynamics......Page 900
18.6 Gibbs Free Energy......Page 904
The Effect of Temperature on Reaction Direction......Page 906
Variation of Gibbs Free Energy During a Reaction......Page 908
Reactions That Reach Equilibrium......Page 910
Gibbs Free Energy Changes under Nonstandard-State Conditions......Page 913
18.8 Gibbs Free Energy, Maximum Work, and Energy Resources......Page 914
Coupling Reactant-Favored Processes with Product-Favored Processes......Page 915
Human Metabolism and Gibbs Free Energy......Page 916
Photosynthesis and Gibbs Free Energy......Page 920
18.10 Conservation of Gibbs Free Energy......Page 923
CHEMISTRY IN THE NEWS Ethanol Fuel and Energy......Page 924
ESTIMATION Gibbs Free Energy and Automobile Travel......Page 926
CHEMISTRY YOU CAN DO Energy Distributions......Page 894
PORTRAIT OF A SCIENTIST Ludwig Boltzmann......Page 896
PORTRAIT OF A SCIENTIST Josiah Willard Gibbs......Page 905
19 Electrochemistry and Its Applications......Page 941
19.1 Redox Reactions......Page 942
19.2 Using Half-Reactions to Understand Redox Reactions......Page 944
Balancing Redox Equations Using Half-Reactions......Page 946
19.3 Electrochemical Cells......Page 950
19.4 Electrochemical Cells and Voltage......Page 954
Cell Voltage......Page 955
19.5 Using Standard Reduction Potentials......Page 959
19.6 E° and Gibbs Free Energy......Page 963
∆G°, E°cell, and K°......Page 965
19.7 Effect of Concentration on Cell Potential......Page 966
Concentration Cells......Page 967
Measurement of pH......Page 968
19.8 Neuron Cells......Page 970
Primary Batteries......Page 973
Secondary Batteries......Page 974
PORTRAIT OF A SCIENTIST Wilson Greatbatch......Page 977
Proton-Exchange Membrane Fuel Cell......Page 978
19.11 Electrolysis—Causing Reactant-Favored Redox Reactions to Occur......Page 979
19.12 Counting Electrons......Page 982
19.13 Corrosion—Product-Favored Redox Reactions......Page 986
Corrosion Protection......Page 987
CHEMISTRY YOU CAN DO Remove Tarnish the Easy Way......Page 961
PORTRAIT OF A SCIENTIST Michael Faraday......Page 964
ESTIMATION The Cost of Aluminum in a Beverage Can......Page 985
20 Nuclear Chemistry......Page 997
20.1 The Nature of Radioactivity......Page 998
Equations for Nuclear Reactions......Page 999
Alpha and Beta Particle Emission......Page 1000
Other Types of Radioactive Decay......Page 1002
20.3 Stability of Atomic Nuclei......Page 1003
The Band of Stability and Type of Radioactive Decay......Page 1005
Binding Energy......Page 1006
Half-Life......Page 1008
Rate of Radioactive Decay......Page 1009
Carbon-14 Dating......Page 1012
PORTRAIT OF A SCIENTIST Glenn Seaborg......Page 1014
20.6 Nuclear Fission......Page 1015
Nuclear Reactors......Page 1017
20.7 Nuclear Fusion......Page 1020
Radiation Units......Page 1021
Radon......Page 1022
ESTIMATION Radioactivity of Common Foods......Page 1025
Medical Imaging......Page 1026
PORTRAIT OF A SCIENTIST Darleane C. Hoffman......Page 1016
ESTIMATION Counting Millirems: Your Radiation Exposure......Page 1023
CHEMISTRY IN THE NEWS Another Reason Not to Smoke......Page 1024
21 The Chemistry of the Main Group Elements......Page 1035
Nuclear Burning......Page 1036
Formation of Heavier Elements......Page 1037
Silica and Silicates......Page 1038
Methods for Obtaining Pure Elements......Page 1041
Elements from the Atmosphere......Page 1042
21.4 Some Main Group Elements Extracted by Electrolysis: Sodium, Chlorine, Magnesium, and Aluminum......Page 1043
Chlorine and Sodium Hydroxide......Page 1045
Magnesium from Seawater......Page 1046
Aluminum Production......Page 1047
PORTRAIT OF A SCIENTIST Paul Louis-Toussaint Héroult......Page 1049
Bromine and Iodine......Page 1050
Group 1A(1): The Alkali Metals......Page 1052
Group 2A(2): The Alkaline-Earth Metals......Page 1054
Group 3A(13): Boron, Aluminum, Gallium, Indium, Thallium......Page 1056
Group 4A(14): Carbon, Silicon, Germanium, Tin, Lead......Page 1058
Group 5A(15): Nitrogen, Phosphorus, Arsenic, Antimony, Bismuth......Page 1059
Group 6A(16): Oxygen, Sulfur, Selenium, Tellurium, Polonium......Page 1065
Group 7A(17): The Halogens......Page 1068
Group 8A(18): The Noble Gases......Page 1070
PORTRAIT OF A SCIENTIST Charles Martin Hall......Page 1048
PORTRAIT OF A SCIENTIST Herbert H. Dow......Page 1051
CHEMISTRY IN THE NEWS Air-Stable White Phosphorus......Page 1064
22 Chemistry of Selected Transition Elements and Coordination Compounds......Page 1077
Electron Configurations......Page 1078
Trends in Atomic Radii of Transition Elements......Page 1081
22.2 Iron and Steel: The Use of Pyrometallurgy......Page 1082
Steel......Page 1084
The Metallurgy of Copper......Page 1087
Bronze and Brass......Page 1089
22.4 Silver and Gold: The Other Coinage Metals......Page 1091
22.5 Chromium......Page 1092
Metals and Coordination Compounds......Page 1095
Naming Complex Ions and Coordination Compounds......Page 1096
Types of Ligands and Coordination Number......Page 1098
CHEMISTRY YOU CAN DO A Penny for Your Thoughts......Page 1101
Isomerism in Coordination Compounds and Complex Ions......Page 1102
Coordination Compounds and Life......Page 1104
Crystal-Field Theory......Page 1105
Electron Configurations and Magnetic Properties of Coordination Complex Ions......Page 1106
Color in Coordination Complexes......Page 1109
Color and the Spectrochemical Series......Page 1110
ESTIMATION Steeling Automobiles......Page 1086
CHEMISTRY IN THE NEWS An Apartment with a View......Page 1090
PORTRAIT OF A SCIENTIST Alfred Werner......Page 1103
Appendices A–J......Page 1117
Appendix K: Answers to Problem-Solving Practice Problems......Page 1160
Appendix L: Answers to Exercises......Page 1178
Appendix M: Answers to Selected Questions for Review and Thought......Page 1197
Glossary......Page 1228
Index......Page 1240