Chemistry: The Central Science Plus MasteringChemistry with eText -- Access Card Package

Cover Page......Page 1
Chemistry: The Central Science ......Page 4
©......Page 5
Dedication Page......Page 6
Brief Contents......Page 7
CONTENTS......Page 8
Chemical Applications and Essays......Page 25
Preface......Page 26
To the Student......Page 30
Acknowledgments......Page 32
About the Authors......Page 36
Guide to Using Text......Page 37
CONCEPTUAL UNDERSTANDING BRINGS CHEMISTRY TO LIFE......Page 39
PROBLEM-SOLVING SKILLS HELP YOU SUCCEED IN YOUR COURSE......Page 40
UPDATED END-OF-CHAPTER MATERIALS BOOST YOUR COMPREHENSION......Page 41
PERSONALIZED COACHING AND FEEDBACK AT YOUR FINGERTIPS......Page 43
EXTEND LEARNING BEYOND THE CLASSROOM......Page 44
1 INTRODUCTION: MATTER AND MEASUREMENT......Page 45
The Atomic and Molecular Perspective of Chemistry......Page 47
Why Study Chemistry?......Page 48
CHEMISTRY PUT TO WORK: Chemistry and the Chemical Industry......Page 49
Elements......Page 50
Compounds......Page 51
Mixtures......Page 53
1.3 PROPERTIES OF MATTER......Page 54
Physical and Chemical Changes......Page 55
Separation of Mixtures......Page 56
1.4 UNITS OF MEASUREMENT......Page 57
SI Units......Page 58
Length and Mass......Page 59
Temperature......Page 60
Volume......Page 61
Density......Page 62
1.5 UNCERTAINTY IN MEASUREMENT......Page 63
Precision and Accuracy......Page 64
Significant Figures......Page 65
Significant Figures in Calculations......Page 66
1.6 DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS......Page 68
STRATEGIES IN CHEMISTRY: Estimating Answers......Page 69
Using Two or More Conversion Factors......Page 70
Conversions Involving Volume......Page 71
STRATEGIES IN CHEMISTRY: The Importance of Practice......Page 72
CHAPTER SUMMARY AND KEY TERMS......Page 73
VISUALIZING CONCEPTS......Page 74
ADDITIONAL EXERCISES......Page 78
2 ATOMS, MOLECULES, AND IONS......Page 81
2.1 THE ATOMIC THEORY OF MATTER......Page 83
Cathode Rays and Electrons......Page 84
The Nuclear Model of the Atom......Page 86
2.3 THE MODERN VIEW OF ATOMIC STRUCTURE......Page 87
Atomic Numbers, Mass Numbers, and Isotopes......Page 89
The Atomic Mass Scale......Page 90
Atomic Weight......Page 91
2.5 THE PERIODIC TABLE......Page 92
Molecules and Chemical Formulas......Page 95
Molecular and Empirical Formulas......Page 96
2.7 IONS AND IONIC COMPOUNDS......Page 97
Predicting Ionic Charges......Page 98
Ionic Compounds......Page 99
STRATEGIES IN CHEMISTRY: Pattern Recognition......Page 101
Names and Formulas of Ionic Compounds......Page 102
Names and Formulas of Acids......Page 107
Names and Formulas of Binary Molecular Compounds......Page 108
Some Derivatives of Alkanes......Page 109
CHAPTER SUMMARY AND KEY TERMS......Page 110
KEY SKILLS......Page 111
VISUALIZING CONCEPTS......Page 112
ADDITIONAL EXERCISES......Page 116
3 STOICHIOMETRY: CALCULATIONS WITH CHEMICAL FORMULAS AND EQUATIONS......Page 119
Balancing Equations......Page 121
3.2 SOME SIMPLE PATTERNS OF CHEMICAL REACTIVITY......Page 124
Combination and Decomposition Reactions......Page 125
Combustion Reactions......Page 126
3.3 FORMULA WEIGHTS......Page 127
Percentage Composition from Chemical Formulas......Page 128
STRATEGIES IN CHEMISTRY: Problem Solving......Page 129
Molar Mass......Page 131
CHEMISTRY AND LIFE: Glucose Monitoring......Page 133
Interconverting Masses and Numbers of Particles......Page 134
3.5 EMPIRICAL FORMULAS FROM ANALYSES......Page 135
Molecular Formulas from Empirical Formulas......Page 137
Combustion Analysis......Page 138
3.6 QUANTITATIVE INFORMATION FROM BALANCED EQUATIONS......Page 139
3.7 LIMITING REACTANTS......Page 142
Theoretical Yields......Page 145
STRATEGIES IN CHEMISTRY: How to Take a Test......Page 146
KEY EQUATIONS......Page 147
VISUALIZING CONCEPTS......Page 148
ADDITIONAL EXERCISES......Page 154
INTEGRATIVE EXERCISES......Page 156
4 REACTIONS IN AQUEOUS SOLUTION......Page 157
Electrolytic Properties......Page 159
Ionic Compounds in Water......Page 160
Strong and Weak Electrolytes......Page 161
4.2 PRECIPITATION REACTIONS......Page 162
Solubility Guidelines for Ionic Compounds......Page 163
Exchange (Metathesis) Reactions......Page 164
Ionic Equations......Page 165
Acids......Page 167
Strong and Weak Acids and Bases......Page 168
Identifying Strong and Weak Electrolytes......Page 169
Neutralization Reactions and Salts......Page 170
Neutralization Reactions with Gas Formation......Page 172
CHEMISTRY PUT TO WORK: Antacids......Page 173
Oxidation and Reduction......Page 174
Oxidation Numbers......Page 175
Oxidation of Metals by Acids and Salts......Page 176
The Activity Series......Page 178
STRATEGIES IN CHEMISTRY: Analyzing Chemical Reactions......Page 181
Molarity......Page 182
Interconverting Molarity, Moles, and Volume......Page 183
Dilution......Page 184
CHEMISTRY AND LIFE: Drinking too much Water Can Kill You......Page 186
4.6 SOLUTION STOICHIOMETRY AND CHEMICAL ANALYSIS......Page 187
Titrations......Page 188
KEY EQUATIONS......Page 192
VISUALIZING CONCEPTS......Page 193
ADDITIONAL EXERCISES......Page 197
INTEGRATIVE EXERCISES......Page 199
5 THERMOCHEMISTRY......Page 201
Kinetic Energy and Potential Energy......Page 203
System and Surroundings......Page 205
Transferring Energy: Work and Heat......Page 206
Internal Energy......Page 207
......Page 208
State Functions......Page 210
5.3 ENTHALPY......Page 212
5.4 ENTHALPIES OF REACTION......Page 215
Heat Capacity and Specific Heat......Page 218
Constant-Pressure Calorimetry......Page 220
Bomb Calorimetry (Constant-Volume Calorimetry)......Page 221
CHEMISTRY AND LIFE: The Regulation of Body Temperature......Page 223
5.6 HESSS LAW......Page 224
5.7 ENTHALPIES OF FORMATION......Page 226
Using Enthalpies of Formation to Calculate Enthalpies of Reaction......Page 228
Foods......Page 231
Fuels......Page 233
Other Energy Sources......Page 234
CHEMISTRY PUT TO WORK: The Scientific and Political Challenges of Biofuels......Page 235
CHAPTER SUMMARY AND KEY TERMS......Page 237
KEY EQUATIONS......Page 238
VISUALIZING CONCEPTS......Page 239
ADDITIONAL EXERCISES......Page 245
INTEGRATIVE EXERCISES......Page 247
6 ELECTRONIC STRUCTURE OF ATOMS......Page 249
6.1 THE WAVE NATURE OF LIGHT......Page 251
A CLOSER LOOK: The Speed of Light......Page 252
Hot Objects and the Quantization of Energy......Page 253
The Photoelectric Effect and Photons......Page 254
Line Spectra......Page 256
The Energy States of the Hydrogen Atom......Page 257
6.4 THE WAVE BEHAVIOR OF MATTER......Page 259
The Uncertainty Principle......Page 260
A CLOSER LOOK: Measurement and the Uncertainty Principle......Page 261
6.5 QUANTUM MECHANICS AND ATOMIC ORBITALS......Page 262
Orbitals and Quantum Numbers......Page 263
The s Orbitals......Page 265
A CLOSER LOOK: Probability Density and Radial Probability Functions......Page 267
The d and f Orbitals......Page 268
Orbitals and Their Energies......Page 269
A CLOSER LOOK: Experimental Evidence for Electron Spin......Page 270
CHEMISTRY AND LIFE: Nuclear Spin and Magnetic Resonance Imaging......Page 271
Hunds Rule......Page 272
Condensed Electron Configurations......Page 274
The Lanthanides and Actinides......Page 275
6.9 ELECTRON CONFIGURATIONS AND THE PERIODIC TABLE......Page 276
Anomalous Electron Configurations......Page 280
CHAPTER SUMMARY AND KEY TERMS......Page 281
KEY EQUATIONS......Page 282
VISUALIZING CONCEPTS......Page 283
ADDITIONAL EXERCISES......Page 287
INTEGRATIVE EXERCISES......Page 289
7 PERIODIC PROPERTIES OF THE ELEMENTS......Page 291
7.1 DEVELOPMENT OF THE PERIODIC TABLE......Page 293
7.2 EFFECTIVE NUCLEAR CHARGE......Page 294
A CLOSER LOOK: Effective Nuclear Charge......Page 296
7.3 SIZES OF ATOMS AND IONS......Page 297
Periodic Trends in Atomic Radii......Page 298
Periodic Trends in Ionic Radii......Page 299
CHEMISTRY PUT TO WORK: Ion Movement Powers Electronics......Page 301
Variations in Successive Ionization Energies......Page 302
Periodic Trends in First Ionization Energies......Page 303
Electron Configurations of Ions......Page 305
7.5 ELECTRON AFFINITIES......Page 306
7.6 METALS, NONMETALS, AND METALLOIDS......Page 307
Metals......Page 308
Nonmetals......Page 310
7.7 TRENDS FOR GROUP 1A AND GROUP 2A METALS......Page 311
Group 1A: The Alkali Metals......Page 312
CHEMISTRY AND LIFE: The Improbable Development of Lithium Drugs......Page 314
Group 2A: The Alkaline Earth Metals......Page 315
Group 6A: The Oxygen Group......Page 316
Group 7A: The Halogens......Page 317
Group 8A: The Noble Gases......Page 319
CHAPTER SUMMARY AND KEY TERMS......Page 320
KEY SKILLS......Page 321
VISUALIZING CONCEPTS......Page 322
ADDITIONAL EXERCISES......Page 326
INTEGRATIVE EXERCISES......Page 328
8 BASIC CONCEPTS OF CHEMICAL BONDING......Page 331
The Octet Rule......Page 333
8.2 IONIC BONDING......Page 334
Energetics of Ionic Bond Formation......Page 335
Electron Configurations of Ions of the s- and p-Block Elements......Page 337
8.3 COVALENT BONDING......Page 339
Lewis Structures......Page 340
8.4 BOND POLARITY AND ELECTRONEGATIVITY......Page 341
Electronegativity......Page 342
Electronegativity and Bond Polarity......Page 343
Dipole Moments......Page 344
Differentiating Ionic and Covalent Bonding......Page 347
8.5 DRAWING LEWIS STRUCTURES......Page 348
Formal Charge and Alternative Lewis Structures......Page 350
A CLOSER LOOK: Oxidation Numbers, Formal Charges, and Actual Partial Charges......Page 352
Resonance in Benzene......Page 354
Less than an Octet of Valence Electrons......Page 355
More than an Octet of Valence Electrons......Page 356
8.8 STRENGTHS OF COVALENT BONDS......Page 358
Bond Enthalpies and the Enthalpies of Reactions......Page 359
Bond Enthalpy and Bond Length......Page 361
CHAPTER SUMMARY AND KEY TERMS......Page 364
VISUALIZING CONCEPTS......Page 365
ADDITIONAL EXERCISES......Page 370
INTEGRATIVE EXERCISES......Page 371
A CLOSER LOOK: Calculation of Lattice Energies: The BornHaber Cycle......Page 338
CHEMISTRY PUT TO WORK: Explosives and Alfred Nobel......Page 362
9 MOLECULAR GEOMETRY AND BONDING THEORIES......Page 373
9.1 MOLECULAR SHAPES......Page 375
9.2 THE VSEPR MODEL......Page 377
Effect of Nonbonding Electrons and Multiple Bonds on Bond Angles......Page 381
Molecules with Expanded Valence Shells......Page 382
Shapes of Larger Molecules......Page 385
9.3 MOLECULAR SHAPE AND MOLECULAR POLARITY......Page 386
9.4 COVALENT BONDING AND ORBITAL OVERLAP......Page 388
sp Hybrid Orbitals......Page 389
sp and sp Hybrid Orbitals......Page 391
Hybrid Orbital Summary......Page 393
9.6 MULTIPLE BONDS......Page 394
......Page 398
General Conclusions......Page 399
CHEMISTRY AND LIFE: The Chemistry of Vision......Page 400
The Hydrogen Molecule......Page 401
Bond Order......Page 403
Molecular Orbitals for Li2 and Be2......Page 404
Molecular Orbitals from 2p Atomic Orbitals......Page 405
A CLOSER LOOK: Phases in Atomic and Molecular Orbitals......Page 406
Electron Configurations for B2 through Ne2......Page 408
Electron Configurations and Molecular Properties......Page 409
Heteronuclear Diatomic Molecules......Page 412
CHEMISTRY PUT TO WORK: Orbitals and Energy......Page 413
CHAPTER SUMMARY AND KEY TERMS......Page 415
VISUALIZING CONCEPTS......Page 416
ADDITIONAL EXERCISES......Page 421
INTEGRATIVE EXERCISES......Page 423
10 GASES......Page 425
10.1 CHARACTERISTICS OF GASES......Page 427
Atmospheric Pressure and the Barometer......Page 428
10.3 THE GAS LAWS......Page 430
The PressureVolume Relationship: Boyles Law......Page 431
The TemperatureVolume Relationship: Charless Law......Page 432
The QuantityVolume Relationship: Avogadros Law......Page 433
10.4 THE IDEAL-GAS EQUATION......Page 434
STRATEGIES IN CHEMISTRY: Calculations Involving Many Variables......Page 436
Relating the Ideal-Gas Equation and the Gas Laws......Page 437
10.5 FURTHER APPLICATIONS OF THE IDEAL-GAS EQUATION......Page 438
Gas Densities and Molar Mass......Page 439
Volumes of Gases in Chemical Reactions......Page 440
CHEMISTRY PUT TO WORK: Gas Pipelines......Page 441
10.6 GAS MIXTURES AND PARTIAL PRESSURES......Page 442
Partial Pressures and Mole Fractions......Page 443
Collecting Gases over Water......Page 444
10.7 THE KINETIC-MOLECULAR THEORY OF GASES......Page 445
Distributions of Molecular Speed......Page 446
Application of Kinetic-Molecular Theory to the Gas Laws......Page 447
10.8 MOLECULAR EFFUSION AND DIFFUSION......Page 448
Grahams Law of Effusion......Page 450
CHEMISTRY PUT TO WORK: Gas Separations......Page 451
10.9 REAL GASES: DEVIATIONS FROM IDEAL BEHAVIOR......Page 452
The van der Waals Equation......Page 454
CHAPTER SUMMARY AND KEY TERMS......Page 456
KEY EQUATIONS......Page 457
VISUALIZING CONCEPTS......Page 458
ADDITIONAL EXERCISES......Page 464
INTEGRATIVE EXERCISES......Page 465
11 LIQUIDS AND INTERMOLECULAR FORCES......Page 467
11.1 A MOLECULAR COMPARISON OF GASES, LIQUIDS, AND SOLIDS......Page 469
11.2 INTERMOLECULAR FORCES......Page 471
Dispersion Forces......Page 472
DipoleDipole Forces......Page 473
Hydrogen Bonding......Page 474
Comparing Intermolecular Forces......Page 477
CHEMISTRY PUT TO WORK: Ionic Liquids......Page 479
Surface Tension......Page 480
11.4 PHASE CHANGES......Page 481
Energy Changes Accompanying Phase Changes......Page 482
Heating Curves......Page 483
Critical Temperature and Pressure......Page 484
11.5 VAPOR PRESSURE......Page 485
Volatility, Vapor Pressure, and Temperature......Page 486
A CLOSER LOOK: The ClausiusClapeyron Equation......Page 487
11.6 PHASE DIAGRAMS......Page 488
The Phase Diagrams of H2O and CO2......Page 489
11.7 LIQUID CRYSTALS......Page 491
Types of Liquid Crystals......Page 492
CHEMISTRY PUT TO WORK: Liquid Crystal Displays......Page 494
CHAPTER SUMMARY AND KEY TERMS......Page 495
VISUALIZING CONCEPTS......Page 496
ADDITIONAL EXERCISES......Page 502
INTEGRATIVE EXERCISES......Page 503
12 SOLIDS AND MODERN MATERIALS......Page 505
12.1 CLASSIFICATIONS OF SOLIDS......Page 507
Unit Cells and Crystal Lattices......Page 508
Filling the Unit Cell......Page 510
12.3 METALLIC SOLIDS......Page 511
The Structures of Metallic Solids......Page 512
Close Packing......Page 513
Alloys......Page 516
12.4 METALLIC BONDING......Page 519
Molecular-Orbital Model......Page 521
12.5 IONIC SOLIDS......Page 524
Structures of Ionic Solids......Page 525
12.7 COVALENT-NETWORK SOLIDS......Page 529
Semiconductors......Page 530
Semiconductor Doping......Page 532
12.8 POLYMERIC SOLIDS......Page 533
CHEMISTRY PUT TO WORK: Solid-State Lighting......Page 534
Making Polymers......Page 535
Structure and Physical Properties of Polymers......Page 537
12.9 NANOMATERIALS......Page 539
Semiconductors on the Nanoscale......Page 540
Fullerenes, Carbon Nanotubes, and Graphene......Page 541
CHAPTER SUMMARY AND KEY TERMS......Page 545
KEY EQUATION......Page 546
VISUALIZING CONCEPTS......Page 547
ADDITIONAL EXERCISES......Page 553
INTEGRATIVE EXERCISES......Page 554
13 PROPERTIES OF SOLUTIONS......Page 555
The Effect of Intermolecular Forces on Solution Formation......Page 557
Energetics of Solution Formation......Page 558
Solution Formation and Chemical Reactions......Page 560
13.2 SATURATED SOLUTIONS AND SOLUBILITY......Page 561
SoluteSolvent Interactions......Page 563
CHEMISTRY AND LIFE: Fat-Soluble and Water-Soluble Vitamins......Page 565
Pressure Effects......Page 566
Temperature Effects......Page 568
Mass Percentage, ppm, and ppb......Page 569
Mole Fraction, Molarity, and Molality......Page 570
Converting Concentration Units......Page 571
Vapor-Pressure Lowering......Page 573
A CLOSER LOOK: Ideal Solutions with Two or More Volatile Components......Page 575
Boiling-Point Elevation......Page 576
Freezing-Point Depression......Page 577
Osmosis......Page 579
Determination of Molar Mass......Page 582
A CLOSER LOOK: Colligative Properties of Electrolyte Solutions......Page 583
13.6 COLLOIDS......Page 584
Hydrophilic and Hydrophobic Colloids......Page 585
Removal of Colloidal Particles......Page 587
CHEMISTRY AND LIFE: Sickle-Cell Anemia......Page 588
CHAPTER SUMMARY AND KEY TERMS......Page 589
KEY EQUATIONS......Page 590
VISUALIZING CONCEPTS......Page 591
ADDITIONAL EXERCISES......Page 596
INTEGRATIVE EXERCISES......Page 597
14 CHEMICAL KINETICS......Page 599
14.1 FACTORS THAT AFFECT REACTION RATES......Page 601
14.2 REACTION RATES......Page 602
Instantaneous Rate......Page 604
Reaction Rates and Stoichiometry......Page 605
14.3 CONCENTRATION AND RATE LAWS......Page 606
CLOSER LOOK: Using Spectroscopic Methods to Measure Reaction Rates......Page 607
Reaction Orders: The Exponents in the Rate Law......Page 608
Magnitudes and Units of Rate Constants......Page 610
Using Initial Rates to Determine Rate Laws......Page 611
First-Order Reactions......Page 612
Second-Order Reactions......Page 614
Half-life......Page 616
CHEMISTRY PUT TO WORK: Methyl Bromide in the Atmosphere......Page 617
14.5 TEMPERATURE AND RATE......Page 618
The Orientation Factor......Page 619
Activation Energy......Page 620
The Arrhenius Equation......Page 621
Determining the Activation Energy......Page 622
Elementary Reactions......Page 624
Multistep Mechanisms......Page 625
Rate Laws for Elementary Reactions......Page 626
The Rate-Determining Step for a Multistep Mechanism......Page 627
Mechanisms with a Slow Initial Step......Page 628
Mechanisms with a Fast Initial Step......Page 629
Homogeneous Catalysis......Page 632
Heterogeneous Catalysis......Page 633
Enzymes......Page 634
CHEMISTRY PUT TO WORK: Catalytic Converters......Page 635
CHEMISTRY AND LIFE: Nitrogen Fixation and Nitrogenase......Page 637
CHAPTER SUMMARY AND KEY TERMS......Page 639
VISUALIZING CONCEPTS......Page 640
ADDITIONAL EXERCISES......Page 649
INTEGRATIVE EXERCISES......Page 651
15 CHEMICAL EQUILIBRIUM......Page 653
15.1 THE CONCEPT OF EQUILIBRIUM......Page 655
15.2 THE EQUILIBRIUM CONSTANT......Page 657
CHEMISTRY PUT TO WORK: The Haber Process......Page 658
Evaluating Kc......Page 659
Equilibrium Constants in Terms of Pressure, Kp......Page 660
Equilibrium Constants and Units......Page 661
The Magnitude of Equilibrium Constants......Page 662
The Direction of the Chemical Equation and K......Page 663
Relating Chemical Equation Stoichiometry and Equilibrium Constants......Page 664
15.4 HETEROGENEOUS EQUILIBRIA......Page 666
15.5 CALCULATING EQUILIBRIUM CONSTANTS......Page 668
Predicting the Direction of Reaction......Page 670
Calculating Equilibrium Concentrations......Page 671
15.7 LE CHTELIERS PRINCIPLE......Page 673
Change in Reactant or Product Concentration......Page 675
Effects of Volume and Pressure Changes......Page 676
Effect of Temperature Changes......Page 677
The Effect of Catalysts......Page 680
CHAPTER SUMMARY AND KEY TERMS......Page 683
KEY EQUATIONS......Page 684
VISUALIZING CONCEPTS......Page 685
ADDITIONAL EXERCISES......Page 690
INTEGRATIVE EXERCISES......Page 691
16 ACIDBASE EQUILIBRIA......Page 693
The H+ Ion in Water......Page 695
Proton-Transfer Reactions......Page 696
Conjugate AcidBase Pairs......Page 697
Relative Strengths of Acids and Bases......Page 699
16.3 THE AUTOIONIZATION OF WATER......Page 701
The Ion Product of Water......Page 702
16.4 THE pH SCALE......Page 703
pOH and Other p Scales......Page 705
Measuring pH......Page 706
Strong Acids......Page 707
Strong Bases......Page 708
16.6 WEAK ACIDS......Page 709
Calculating Ka from pH......Page 711
Percent Ionization......Page 712
Using Ka to Calculate pH......Page 713
Polyprotic Acids......Page 717
16.7 WEAK BASES......Page 719
Types of Weak Bases......Page 720
16.8 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN Ka AND Kb......Page 722
CHEMISTRY PUT TO WORK: Amines and Amine Hydrochlorides......Page 723
An Anions Ability to React with Water......Page 724
A Cations Ability to React with Water......Page 725
Combined Effect of Cation and Anion in Solution......Page 726
Binary Acids......Page 728
Oxyacids......Page 729
Carboxylic Acids......Page 731
16.11 LEWIS ACIDS AND BASES......Page 732
CHAPTER SUMMARY AND KEY TERMS......Page 735
KEY EQUATIONS......Page 736
VISUALIZING CONCEPTS......Page 737
ADDITIONAL EXERCISES......Page 742
INTEGRATIVE EXERCISES......Page 744
17 ADDITIONAL ASPECTS OF AQUEOUS EQUILIBRIA......Page 745
17.1 THE COMMON-ION EFFECT......Page 747
Composition and Action of Buffered Solutions......Page 750
Calculating the pH of a Buffer......Page 751
Buffer Capacity and pH Range......Page 753
Addition of Strong Acids or Bases to Buffers......Page 754
CHEMISTRY AND LIFE: Blood as a Buffered Solution......Page 756
Strong AcidStrong Base Titrations......Page 757
Weak AcidStrong Base Titrations......Page 759
Titrations of Polyprotic Acids......Page 763
Titrating with an AcidBase Indicator......Page 764
The Solubility-Product Constant, Ksp......Page 765
Solubility and Ksp
......Page 766
Common-Ion Effect......Page 769
CHEMISTRY AND LIFE: Ocean Acidification......Page 771
CHEMISTRY AND LIFE: Tooth Decay and Fluoridation......Page 773
Formation of Complex Ions......Page 774
Amphoterism......Page 776
17.6 PRECIPITATION AND SEPARATION OF IONS......Page 777
Selective Precipitation of Ions......Page 778
17.7 QUALITATIVE ANALYSIS FOR METALLIC ELEMENTS......Page 779
CHAPTER SUMMARY AND KEY TERMS......Page 782
VISUALIZING CONCEPTS......Page 783
ADDITIONAL EXERCISES......Page 789
INTEGRATIVE EXERCISES......Page 790
18 CHEMISTRY OF THE ENVIRONMENT......Page 791
Composition of the Atmosphere......Page 793
Photochemical Reactions in the Atmosphere......Page 795
Ozone in the Stratosphere......Page 797
The Ozone Layer and Its Depletion......Page 799
Sulfur Compounds and Acid Rain......Page 801
Nitrogen Oxides and Photochemical Smog......Page 803
Greenhouse Gases: Water Vapor, Carbon Dioxide, and Climate......Page 804
The Global Water Cycle......Page 807
Salt Water: Earths Oceans and Seas......Page 808
Freshwater and Groundwater......Page 809
18.4 HUMAN ACTIVITIES AND EARTHS WATER......Page 810
Water Purification: Desalination......Page 811
A CLOSER LOOK: Water Softening......Page 813
Water Purification: Municipal Treatment......Page 812
18.5 GREEN CHEMISTRY......Page 814
Greener Reagents and Processes......Page 816
KEY SKILLS......Page 819
VISUALIZING CONCEPTS......Page 820
ADDITIONAL EXERCISES......Page 824
INTEGRATIVE EXERCISES......Page 825
19 CHEMICAL THERMODYNAMICS......Page 827
19.1 SPONTANEOUS PROCESSES......Page 829
Reversible and Irreversible Processes......Page 831
Entropy Change......Page 833
......Page 834
The Second Law of Thermodynamics......Page 835
Expansion of a Gas at the Molecular Level......Page 836
Boltzmanns Equation and Microstates......Page 837
Molecular Motions and Energy......Page 839
......Page 840
The Third Law of Thermodynamics......Page 842
19.4 ENTROPY CHANGES IN CHEMICAL REACTIONS......Page 843
Entropy Changes in the Surroundings......Page 845
19.5 GIBBS FREE ENERGY......Page 846
Standard Free Energy of Formation......Page 849
A CLOSER LOOK: Whats Free about Free Energy?......Page 851
19.6 FREE ENERGY AND TEMPERATURE......Page 852
Free Energy Under Nonstandard Conditions......Page 854
......Page 856
CHEMISTRY AND LIFE: Driving Nonspontaneous Reactions......Page 857
KEY SKILLS......Page 859
VISUALIZING CONCEPTS......Page 860
ADDITIONAL EXERCISES......Page 866
INTEGRATIVE EXERCISES......Page 868
20 ELECTROCHEMISTRY......Page 869
20.1 OXIDATION STATES AND OXIDATION-REDUCTION REACTIONS......Page 871
Balancing Equations by the Method of Half-Reactions......Page 873
Balancing Equations for Reactions Occurring in Basic Solution......Page 876
20.3 VOLTAIC CELLS......Page 878
20.4 CELL POTENTIALS UNDER STANDARD CONDITIONS......Page 881
Standard Reduction Potentials......Page 882
Strengths of Oxidizing and Reducing Agents......Page 886
20.5 FREE ENERGY AND REDOX REACTIONS......Page 888
Emf, Free Energy, and the Equilibrium Constant......Page 890
The Nernst Equation......Page 892
Concentration Cells......Page 895
CHEMISTRY AND LIFE: Heartbeats and Electrocardiography......Page 896
20.7 BATTERIES AND FUEL CELLS......Page 897
Alkaline Battery......Page 898
Hydrogen Fuel Cells......Page 899
20.8 CORROSION......Page 900
Corrosion of Iron (Rusting)......Page 901
Preventing Corrosion of Iron......Page 902
20.9 ELECTROLYSIS......Page 903
Quantitative Aspects of Electrolysis......Page 904
CHEMISTRY PUT TO WORK: Electrometallurgy of Aluminum......Page 905
CHAPTER SUMMARY AND KEY TERMS......Page 907
VISUALIZING CONCEPTS......Page 908
ADDITIONAL EXERCISES......Page 915
INTEGRATIVE EXERCISES......Page 916
21 NUCLEAR CHEMISTRY......Page 917
21.1 RADIOACTIVITY......Page 919
Nuclear Equations......Page 920
Types of Radioactive Decay......Page 921
Neutron-to-Proton Ratio......Page 923
Further Observations......Page 925
Accelerating Charged Particles......Page 927
Transuranium Elements......Page 928
21.4 RATES OF RADIOACTIVE DECAY......Page 929
Radiometric Dating......Page 930
Calculations Based on Half-Life......Page 931
21.5 DETECTION OF RADIOACTIVITY......Page 934
Radiotracers......Page 935
CHEMISTRY AND LIFE: Medical Applications of Radiotracers......Page 936
21.6 ENERGY CHANGES IN NUCLEAR REACTIONS......Page 937
Nuclear Binding Energies......Page 938
21.7 NUCLEAR POWER: FISSION......Page 939
Nuclear Reactors......Page 941
Nuclear Waste......Page 943
21.9 RADIATION IN THE ENVIRONMENT AND LIVING SYSTEMS......Page 945
A CLOSER LOOK: Nuclear Synthesis of the Elements......Page 946
Radiation Doses......Page 947
Radon......Page 949
CHEMISTRY AND LIFE: Radiation Therapy......Page 950
SUMMARY AND KEY TERMS......Page 951
VISUALIZING CONCEPTS......Page 952
ADDITIONAL EXERCISES......Page 956
INTEGRATIVE EXERCISES......Page 958
22 CHEMISTRY OF THE NONMETALS......Page 959
22.1 PERIODIC TRENDS AND CHEMICAL REACTIONS......Page 961
Chemical Reactions......Page 962
Isotopes of Hydrogen......Page 963
Properties of Hydrogen......Page 964
A CLOSER LOOK: The Hydrogen Economy......Page 965
Binary Hydrogen Compounds......Page 966
22.3 GROUP 8A: THE NOBLE GASES......Page 967
Noble-Gas Compounds......Page 968
Properties and Production of the Halogens......Page 969
Uses of the Halogens......Page 970
The Hydrogen Halides......Page 971
Oxyacids and Oxyanions......Page 972
Production of Oxygen......Page 973
Ozone......Page 974
Oxides......Page 975
Peroxides and Superoxides......Page 976
Properties and Uses of Sulfur, Selenium, and Tellurium......Page 977
Oxides, Oxyacids, and Oxyanions of Sulfur......Page 978
Hydrogen Compounds of Nitrogen......Page 980
Oxides and Oxyacids of Nitrogen......Page 982
General Characteristics of the Group 5A Elements......Page 984
Oxy Compounds of Phosphorus......Page 985
Elemental Forms of Carbon......Page 988
Oxides of Carbon......Page 989
CHEMISTRY PUT TO WORK: Carbon Fibers and Composites......Page 990
Carbides......Page 991
General Characteristics of the Group 4A Elements......Page 992
Silicates......Page 993
Silicones......Page 995
22.11 BORON......Page 996
CHAPTER SUMMARY AND KEY TERMS......Page 997
KEY SKILLS......Page 998
VISUALIZING CONCEPTS......Page 999
INTEGRATIVE EXERCISES......Page 1003
23 TRANSITION METALS AND COORDINATION CHEMISTRY......Page 1005
Physical Properties......Page 1007
Electron Configurations and Oxidation States......Page 1008
Magnetism......Page 1010
23.2 TRANSITION METAL COMPLEXES......Page 1011
The Development of Coordination Chemistry: Werners Theory......Page 1012
The MetalLigand Bond......Page 1014
Charges, Coordination Numbers, and Geometries......Page 1015
23.3 COMMON LIGANDS IN COORDINATION CHEMISTRY......Page 1017
Metals and Chelates in Living Systems......Page 1019
A CLOSER LOOK: Entropy and the Chelate Effect......Page 1020
CHEMISTRY AND LIFE: The Battle for Iron in Living Systems......Page 1021
23.4 NOMENCLATURE AND ISOMERISM IN COORDINATION CHEMISTRY......Page 1022
Structural Isomerism......Page 1024
Stereoisomerism......Page 1025
Color......Page 1028
23.6 CRYSTAL-FIELD THEORY......Page 1030
Electron Configurations in Octahedral Complexes......Page 1033
Tetrahedral and Square-Planar Complexes......Page 1034
A CLOSER LOOK: Charge-Transfer Color......Page 1036
CHAPTER SUMMARY AND KEY TERMS......Page 1038
VISUALIZING CONCEPTS......Page 1039
ADDITIONAL EXERCISES......Page 1043
INTEGRATIVE EXERCISES......Page 1045
24 THE CHEMISTRY OF LIFE: ORGANIC AND BIOLOGICAL CHEMISTRY......Page 1047
The Structures of Organic Molecules......Page 1049
Solubility and AcidBase Properties of Organic Substances......Page 1050
24.2 INTRODUCTION TO HYDROCARBONS......Page 1051
Structural Isomers......Page 1052
Nomenclature of Alkanes......Page 1053
Reactions of Alkanes......Page 1056
24.3 ALKENES, ALKYNES, AND AROMATIC HYDROCARBONS......Page 1057
Alkenes......Page 1058
Addition Reactions of Alkenes and Alkynes......Page 1060
A CLOSER LOOK: Mechanism of Addition Reactions......Page 1062
Substitution Reactions......Page 1063
24.4 ORGANIC FUNCTIONAL GROUPS......Page 1064
Alcohols......Page 1066
Aldehydes and Ketones......Page 1067
Carboxylic Acids and Esters......Page 1068
24.5 CHIRALITY IN ORGANIC CHEMISTRY......Page 1071
24.7 PROTEINS......Page 1072
Polypeptides and Proteins......Page 1073
Protein Structure......Page 1075
24.8 CARBOHYDRATES......Page 1077
Disaccharides......Page 1078
Polysaccharides......Page 1079
Fats......Page 1080
24.10 NUCLEIC ACIDS......Page 1081
STRATEGIES IN CHEMISTRY: What Now?......Page 1085
CHAPTER SUMMARY AND KEY TERMS......Page 1086
VISUALIZING CONCEPTS......Page 1087
ADDITIONAL EXERCISES......Page 1092
INTEGRATIVE EXERCISES......Page 1093
A: MATHEMATICAL OPERATIONS......Page 1094
B: PROPERTIES OF WATER......Page 1101
C: THERMODYNAMIC QUANTITIES FOR SELECTED SUBSTANCES AT 298.15 K (25 C)......Page 1102
D: AQUEOUS EQUILIBRIUM CONSTANTS......Page 1105
E: STANDARD REDUCTION POTENTIALS AT 25C......Page 1107
Answers to Selected Exercises......Page 1108
Answers to Give it Some Thought......Page 1140
Answers to Go Figure......Page 1148
Glossary......Page 1154
Photo/Art Credits......Page 1166
INDEX......Page 1168