Chemistry: The Central Science in SI Units

Cover......Page 1
Useful Conversion Factors and Relationships......Page 2
Title Page......Page 7
Copyright Page......Page 8
Brief Contents......Page 11
Contents......Page 13
Preface......Page 27
Acknowledgments......Page 31
About the Author......Page 37
1. Introduction: Matter, Energy, and Measurement......Page 48
  The Atomic and Molecular Perspective of Chemistry......Page 50
  Why Study Chemistry?......Page 51
  Pure Substances......Page 53
  Elements......Page 54
  Compounds......Page 55
  Mixtures......Page 56
  Physical and Chemical Changes......Page 58
  Separation of Mixtures......Page 59
  Kinetic Energy and Potential Energy......Page 61
 A Closer Look: The Scientific Method......Page 63
  Temperature......Page 65
  Volume......Page 66
  Units of Energy......Page 67
  Precision and Accuracy......Page 70
  Significant Figures......Page 71
  Significant Figures in Calculations......Page 72
  Conversion Factors......Page 74
 Strategies for Success: Estimating Answers......Page 76
  Conversions Involving Volume......Page 77
 Chapter Summary and Key Terms......Page 79
 Key Equations......Page 80
 Exercises......Page 81
 Additional Exercises......Page 85
 Chemistry Put to Work: Chemistry and the Chemical Industry......Page 52
 Chemistry Put to Work: Chemistry in the News......Page 69
 Strategies for Success: The Features of This Book......Page 78
2. Atoms, Molecules, and Ions......Page 88
 2.1. The Atomic Theory of Matter......Page 90
  Cathode Rays and Electrons......Page 91
  Radioactivity......Page 93
  The Nuclear Model of the Atom......Page 94
 2.3. The Modern View of Atomic Structure......Page 95
 A Closer Look: Basic Forces......Page 97
  Atomic Weight......Page 99
 2.5. The Periodic Table......Page 101
  Molecular and Empirical Formulas......Page 104
  Picturing Molecules......Page 105
 2.7. Ions and Ionic Compounds......Page 106
  Predicting Ionic Charges......Page 107
  Ionic Compounds......Page 108
  Names and Formulas of Ionic Compounds......Page 111
  Names and Formulas of Acids......Page 115
  Names and Formulas of Binary Molecular Compounds......Page 116
  Alkanes......Page 117
  Some Derivatives of Alkanes......Page 118
 Learning Outcomes......Page 120
 Exercises......Page 121
 Additional Exercises......Page 126
 A Closer Look: The Mass Spectrometer......Page 100
 A Closer Look: What Are Coins Made Of?......Page 103
 Chemistry and Life: Elements Required by Living Organisms......Page 110
 Strategies for Success: How to Take a Test......Page 119
3. Chemical Reactions and Reaction Stoichiometry......Page 128
  Balancing Equations......Page 130
  A Step-by-Step Example of Balancing a Chemical Equation......Page 131
  Indicating the States of Reactants and Products......Page 133
  Combination and Decomposition Reactions......Page 134
 3.3. Formula Weights......Page 136
  Formula and Molecular Weights......Page 137
 Strategies for Success: Problem Solving......Page 138
 3.4. Avogadro’s Number and the Mole......Page 139
  Molar Mass......Page 140
 Chemistry and Life: Glucose Monitoring......Page 142
  Interconverting Masses and Numbers of Particles......Page 143
 3.5. Empirical Formulas from Analyses......Page 144
  Molecular Formulas from Empirical Formulas......Page 146
  Combustion Analysis......Page 147
 3.6. Quantitative Information from Balanced Equations......Page 148
 3.7. Limiting Reactants......Page 152
  Theoretical and Percent Yields......Page 154
 Key Equations......Page 156
 Exercises......Page 157
 Additional Exercises......Page 163
 Integrative Exercises......Page 164
 Design an Experiment......Page 165
 Strategies for Success: Design an Experiment......Page 155
4. Reactions in Aqueous Solution......Page 166
  Electrolytes and Nonelectrolytes......Page 168
  How Compounds Dissolve in Water......Page 169
  Strong and Weak Electrolytes......Page 170
  Solubility Guidelines for Ionic Compounds......Page 172
  Exchange (Metathesis) Reactions......Page 173
  Ionic Equations and Spectator Ions......Page 175
  Acids......Page 176
  Bases......Page 177
  Identifying Strong and Weak Electrolytes......Page 178
  Neutralization Reactions and Salts......Page 180
 Chemistry Put to Work: Antacids......Page 182
  Oxidation and Reduction......Page 183
  Oxidation Numbers......Page 184
  Oxidation of Metals by Acids and Salts......Page 186
  The Activity Series......Page 187
 Strategies for Success: Analyzing Chemical Reactions......Page 190
  Expressing the Concentration of an Electrolyte......Page 191
  Interconverting Molarity, Moles, and Volume......Page 192
  Dilution......Page 193
 4.6. Solution Stoichiometry and Chemical Analysis......Page 194
  Titrations......Page 196
 Chapter Summary and Key Terms......Page 199
 Exercises......Page 200
 Additional Exercises......Page 205
 Integrative Exercises......Page 206
 Design an Experiment......Page 207
5. Thermochemistry......Page 208
 5.1. The Nature of Chemical Energy......Page 210
  System and Surroundings......Page 212
  Internal Energy......Page 213
  Relating E to Heat and Work......Page 214
  State Functions......Page 216
  Pressure–Volume Work......Page 218
  Enthalpy Change......Page 220
 5.4. Enthalpies of Reaction......Page 222
 A Closer Look: Using Enthalpy as a Guide......Page 224
  Heat Capacity and Specific Heat......Page 225
  Constant-Pressure Calorimetry......Page 226
  Bomb Calorimetry (Constant-Volume Calorimetry)......Page 228
 Chemistry and Life: The Regulation of Body Temperature......Page 229
 5.7. Enthalpies of Formation......Page 232
  Using Enthalpies of Formation to Calculate Enthalpies of Reaction......Page 234
 5.8. Bond Enthalpies......Page 236
  Bond Enthalpies and the Enthalpies of Reactions......Page 238
  Foods......Page 240
  Fuels......Page 242
  Other Energy Sources......Page 243
 Chapter Summary and Key Terms......Page 246
 Key Equations......Page 247
 Exercises......Page 248
 Additional Exercises......Page 254
 Integrative Exercises......Page 256
 Design an Experiment......Page 257
 A Closer Look: Energy, Enthalpy, and P-V Work......Page 221
 Chemistry Put to Work: The Scientific and Political Challenges of Biofuels......Page 244
6. Electronic Structure of Atoms......Page 258
 6.1. The Wave Nature of Light......Page 260
  Hot Objects and the Quantization of Energy......Page 262
  The Photoelectric Effect and Photons......Page 263
  Line Spectra......Page 265
  Bohr’s Model......Page 266
  The Energy States of the Hydrogen Atom......Page 267
 6.4. The Wave Behavior of Matter......Page 270
 A Closer Look: Measurement and the Uncertainty Principle......Page 272
 6.5. Quantum Mechanics and Atomic Orbitals......Page 273
  Orbitals and Quantum Numbers......Page 274
  The s Orbitals......Page 277
 A Closer Look: Probability Density and Radial Probability Functions......Page 279
 6.7. Many-Electron Atoms......Page 280
  Orbitals and Their Energies......Page 281
 6.8. Electron Configurations......Page 282
  Hund’s Rule......Page 284
  Transition Metals......Page 286
 6.9. Electron Configurations and the Periodic Table......Page 287
  Anomalous Electron Configurations......Page 290
 Chapter Summary and Key Terms......Page 292
 Learning Outcomes......Page 293
 Exercises......Page 294
 Additional Exercises......Page 299
 Design an Experiment......Page 301
 A Closer Look: Thought Experiments and Schrödinger’s Cat......Page 275
 Chemistry and Life: Nuclear Spin and Magnetic Resonance Imaging......Page 283
7. Periodic Properties of the Elements......Page 302
 7.1. Development of the Periodic Table......Page 304
 7.2. Effective Nuclear Charge......Page 305
 A Closer Look: Effective Nuclear Charge......Page 308
  Periodic Trends in Ionic Radii......Page 310
  Variations in Successive Ionization Energies......Page 314
  Periodic Trends in First Ionization Energies......Page 315
  Electron Configurations of Ions......Page 316
 7.5. Electron Affinity......Page 318
 7.6. Metals, Nonmetals, and Metalloids......Page 319
  Metals......Page 320
  Nonmetals......Page 322
  Group 1A: The Alkali Metals......Page 324
  Group 2A: The Alkaline Earth Metals......Page 328
  Hydrogen......Page 329
  Group 6A: The Oxygen Group......Page 330
  Group 7A: The Halogens......Page 331
  Group 8A: The Noble Gases......Page 333
 Chapter Summary and Key Terms......Page 334
 Key Equations......Page 335
 Exercises......Page 336
 Additional Exercises......Page 340
 Integrative Exercises......Page 342
 Design an Experiment......Page 343
 Chemistry Put to Work: Ionic Size and Lithium-Ion Batteries......Page 313
 Chemistry and Life: The Improbable Development of Lithium Drugs......Page 327
8. Basic Concepts of Chemical Bonding......Page 344
  The Octet Rule......Page 346
 8.2. Ionic Bonding......Page 347
  Energetics of Ionic Bond Formation......Page 348
  Electron Configurations of Ions of the s- and p-Block Elements......Page 350
 A Closer Look: Calculation of Lattice Energies: The Born–Haber Cycle......Page 351
 8.3. Covalent Bonding......Page 352
  Lewis Structures......Page 353
  Multiple Bonds......Page 354
  Electronegativity......Page 355
  Electronegativity and Bond Polarity......Page 356
  Dipole Moments......Page 357
  Comparing Ionic and Covalent Bonding......Page 360
 8.5. Drawing Lewis Structures......Page 361
  Formal Charge and Alternative Lewis Structures......Page 363
 A Closer Look: Oxidation Numbers, Formal Charges, and Actual Partial Charges......Page 365
  Resonance in Benzene......Page 367
 8.7. Exceptions to the Octet Rule......Page 368
  Less Than an Octet of Valence Electrons......Page 369
  More Than an Octet of Valence Electrons......Page 370
 8.8. Strengths and Lengths of Covalent Bonds......Page 371
 Chapter Summary and Key Terms......Page 374
 Exercises......Page 375
 Additional Exercises......Page 380
 Integrative Exercises......Page 381
 Design an Experiment......Page 383
9. Molecular Geometry and Bonding Theories......Page 384
 9.1. Molecular Shapes......Page 386
 9.2. The VSEPR Model......Page 388
  Applying the VSEPR Model to Determine Molecular Shapes......Page 389
  Molecules with Expanded Valence Shells......Page 393
  Shapes of Larger Molecules......Page 396
 9.3. Molecular Shape and Molecular Polarity......Page 398
 9.4. Covalent Bonding and Orbital Overlap......Page 400
  sp Hybrid Orbitals......Page 401
  sp2 and sp3 Hybrid Orbitals......Page 403
  Hybrid Orbital Summary......Page 405
 9.6. Multiple Bonds......Page 407
  Resonance Structures, Delocalization, and p Bonding......Page 411
 Chemistry and Life: The Chemistry of Vision......Page 413
  Molecular Orbitals of the Hydrogen Molecule......Page 414
  Bond Order......Page 416
 9.8. Bonding in Period 2 Diatomic Molecules......Page 417
  Molecular Orbitals for Li2 and Be2......Page 418
  Molecular Orbitals from 2p Atomic Orbitals......Page 419
  Electron Configurations for B2 through Ne2......Page 422
  Electron Configurations and Molecular Properties......Page 423
  Heteronuclear Diatomic Molecules......Page 426
 Chapter Summary and Key Terms......Page 428
 Learning Outcomes......Page 429
 Exercises......Page 430
 Additional Exercises......Page 435
 Integrative Exercises......Page 438
 Design an Experiment......Page 439
 A Closer Look: Phases in Atomic and Molecular Orbitals......Page 420
 Chemistry Put to Work: Orbitals and Energy......Page 427
10. Gases......Page 440
 10.1. Characteristics of Gases......Page 442
  Atmospheric Pressure and the Barometer......Page 443
  The Pressure–Volume Relationship: Boyle’s Law......Page 446
  The Temperature–Volume Relationship: Charles’s Law......Page 447
  The Quantity–Volume Relationship: Avogadro’s Law......Page 448
 10.4. The Ideal-Gas Equation......Page 449
  Relating the Ideal-Gas Equation and the Gas Laws......Page 452
  Gas Densities and Molar Mass......Page 453
  Volumes of Gases in Chemical Reactions......Page 455
 10.6. Gas Mixtures and Partial Pressures......Page 456
  Partial Pressures and Mole Fractions......Page 457
 10.7. The Kinetic-Molecular Theory of Gases......Page 458
  Distributions of Molecular Speed......Page 459
 A Closer Look: The Ideal-Gas Equation......Page 460
 10.8. Molecular Effusion and Diffusion......Page 461
  Graham’s Law of Effusion......Page 462
  Diffusion and Mean Free Path......Page 463
 10.9. Real Gases: Deviations from Ideal Behavior......Page 465
  The van der Waals Equation......Page 467
 Chapter Summary and Key Terms......Page 469
 Exercises......Page 470
 Additional Exercises......Page 476
 Integrative Exercises......Page 478
 Design an Experiment......Page 479
 Strategies for Success: Calculations Involving Many Variables......Page 451
 Chemistry Put to Work: Gas Separations......Page 464
11. Liquids and Intermolecular Forces......Page 480
 11.1. A Molecular Comparison of Gases, Liquids, and Solids......Page 482
 11.2. Intermolecular Forces......Page 484
  Dispersion Forces......Page 485
  Dipole–Dipole Interactions......Page 486
  Hydrogen Bonding......Page 487
  Comparing Intermolecular Forces......Page 490
 11.3. Select Properties of Liquids......Page 491
  Viscosity......Page 492
 Chemistry Put to Work: Ionic Liquids......Page 493
  Capillary Action......Page 494
  Energy Changes Accompany Phase Changes......Page 495
  Heating Curves......Page 496
  Critical Temperature and Pressure......Page 497
 11.5. Vapor Pressure......Page 499
  Volatility, Vapor Pressure, and Temperature......Page 500
 A Closer Look: The Clausius–Clapeyron Equation......Page 501
 11.6. Phase Diagrams......Page 502
  The Phase Diagrams of H2O and CO2......Page 503
  Types of Liquid Crystals......Page 505
 Chapter Summary and Key Terms......Page 508
 Exercises......Page 509
 Additional Exercises......Page 514
 Integrative Exercises......Page 516
 Design an Experiment......Page 517
12. Solids and Modern Materials......Page 518
 12.1. Classification of Solids......Page 520
  Unit Cells and Crystal Lattices......Page 521
  Filling the Unit Cell......Page 523
 A Closer Look: X-ray Diffraction......Page 524
  The Structures of Metallic Solids......Page 525
  Close Packing......Page 526
  Alloys......Page 529
  Electron-Sea Model......Page 532
  Molecular Orbital Model......Page 533
 12.5. Ionic Solids......Page 535
  Structures of Ionic Solids......Page 536
 12.7. Covalent-Network Solids......Page 540
  Semiconductors......Page 541
  Semiconductor Doping......Page 543
 12.8. Polymers......Page 546
  Making Polymers......Page 547
  Structure and Physical Properties of Polymers......Page 550
  Semiconductors on the Nanoscale......Page 552
  Metals on the Nanoscale......Page 553
  Carbon on the Nanoscale......Page 555
 Chapter Summary and Key Terms......Page 558
 Key Equations......Page 559
 Exercises......Page 560
 Additional Exercises......Page 567
 Integrative Exercises......Page 568
 Design an Experiment......Page 569
 Chemistry Put to Work: Alloys of Gold......Page 531
 Chemistry Put to Work: Solid-State Lighting......Page 545
 Chemistry Put to Work: Modern Materials in the Automobile......Page 549
 Chemistry Put to Work: Microporous and Mesoporous Materials......Page 554
13. Properties of Solutions......Page 570
  The Natural Tendency toward Mixing......Page 572
  The Effect of Intermolecular Forces on Solution Formation......Page 573
  Energetics of Solution Formation......Page 574
 13.2. Saturated Solutions and Solubility......Page 576
  Solute–Solvent Interactions......Page 578
  Pressure Effects......Page 580
 Chemistry and Life: Blood Gases and Deep-Sea Diving......Page 583
  Mass Percentage, ppm, and ppb......Page 584
  Mole Fraction, Molarity, and Molality......Page 585
  Converting Concentration Units......Page 586
  Vapor–Pressure Lowering......Page 588
 A Closer Look: Ideal Solutions with Two or More Volatile Components......Page 590
  Freezing-Point Depression......Page 591
  Osmosis......Page 593
  Determination of Molar Mass from Colligative Properties......Page 596
 13.6. Colloids......Page 598
  Hydrophilic and Hydrophobic Colloids......Page 599
 Chemistry and Life: Sickle-Cell Anemia......Page 601
 Chapter Summary and Key Terms......Page 602
 Learning Outcomes......Page 603
 Exercises......Page 604
 Additional Exercises......Page 610
 Integrative Exercises......Page 611
 Design an Experiment......Page 613
 Chemistry and Life: Fat-Soluble and Water-Soluble Vitamins......Page 579
 A Closer Look: The van’t Hoff Factor......Page 597
14. Chemical Kinetics......Page 614
 14.1. Factors That Affect Reaction Rates......Page 616
 14.2. Reaction Rates......Page 617
  Change of Rate with Time......Page 618
  Instantaneous Rate......Page 619
  Reaction Rates and Stoichiometry......Page 620
 14.3. Concentration and Rate Laws......Page 621
  Reaction Orders: The Exponents in the Rate Law......Page 623
  Magnitudes and Units of Rate Constants......Page 625
  Using Initial Rates to Determine Rate Laws......Page 626
  First-Order Reactions......Page 627
  Second-Order Reactions......Page 629
  Half-Life......Page 631
  The Collision Model......Page 633
  Activation Energy......Page 634
  The Arrhenius Equation......Page 636
  Determining the Activation Energy......Page 637
  Multistep Mechanisms......Page 639
  Rate Laws for Elementary Reactions......Page 641
  The Rate-Determining Step for a Multistep Mechanism......Page 642
  Mechanisms with a Slow Initial Step......Page 643
  Mechanisms with a Fast Initial Step......Page 644
  Homogeneous Catalysis......Page 646
  Heterogeneous Catalysis......Page 648
  Enzymes......Page 649
 Learning Outcomes......Page 654
 Exercises......Page 655
 Additional Exercises......Page 663
 Integrative Exercises......Page 666
 Design an Experiment......Page 667
 A Closer Look: Using Spectroscopic Methods to Measure Reaction Rates: Beer’s Law......Page 622
 Chemistry Put to Work: Methyl Bromide in the Atmosphere......Page 632
 Chemistry Put to Work: Catalytic Converters......Page 650
 Chemistry and Life: Nitrogen Fixation and Nitrogenase......Page 652
15. Chemical Equilibrium......Page 668
 15.1. The Concept of Equilibrium......Page 671
 15.2. The Equilibrium Constant......Page 673
  Evaluating Kc......Page 675
  Equilibrium Constants in Terms of Pressure,Kp......Page 676
  Equilibrium Constants and Units......Page 677
  The Magnitude of Equilibrium Constants......Page 678
  The Direction of the Chemical Equation and K......Page 679
  Relating Chemical Equation Stoichiometry and Equilibrium Constants......Page 680
 15.4. Heterogeneous Equilibria......Page 682
 15.5. Calculating Equilibrium Constants......Page 684
 15.6. Applications of Equilibrium Constants......Page 686
  Predicting the Direction of Reaction......Page 687
  Calculating Equilibrium Concentrations......Page 688
 15.7. Le Châtelier’s Principle......Page 690
  Change in Reactant or Product Concentration......Page 692
  Effects of Volume and Pressure Changes......Page 693
  Effect of Temperature Changes......Page 695
 A Closer Look: Temperature Changes and Le Châtelier’s Principle......Page 697
 Chemistry Put to Work: Controlling Nitric Oxide Emissions......Page 700
 Key Equations......Page 701
 Exercises......Page 702
 Additional Exercises......Page 707
 Integrative Exercises......Page 708
 Design an Experiment......Page 709
 Chemistry Put to Work: The Haber Process......Page 674
16. Acid–Base Equilibria......Page 710
 16.1. Arrhenius Acids and Bases......Page 712
  Proton-Transfer Reactions......Page 713
  Conjugate Acid–Base Pairs......Page 714
  Relative Strengths of Acids and Bases......Page 716
  The Ion Product of Water......Page 718
 16.4. The pH Scale......Page 720
  pOH and Other “p” Scales......Page 722
  Measuring pH......Page 723
  Strong Acids......Page 724
  Strong Bases......Page 725
 16.6. Weak Acids......Page 726
  Calculating Ka from pH......Page 727
  Percent Ionization......Page 728
  Using Ka to Calculate pH......Page 729
  Polyprotic Acids......Page 733
  Types of Weak Bases......Page 736
 16.8. Relationship Between Ka and Kb......Page 739
  A Cation’s Ability to React with Water......Page 742
  Combined Effect of Cation and Anion in Solution......Page 743
  Factors That Affect Acid Strength......Page 745
  Binary Acids......Page 746
  Oxyacids......Page 747
 Chemistry and Life: The Amphiprotic Behavior of Amino Acids......Page 749
 16.11. Lewis Acids and Bases......Page 750
 Learning Outcomes......Page 753
 Exercises......Page 754
 Additional Exercises......Page 759
 Design an Experiment......Page 761
 A Closer Look: Polyprotic Acids......Page 735
 Chemistry Put to Work: Amines and Amine Hydrochlorides......Page 741
17. Additional Aspects of Aqueous Equilibria......Page 762
 17.1. The Common-Ion Effect......Page 764
  Composition and Action of Buffers......Page 767
  Calculating the pH of a Buffer......Page 769
  Addition of Strong Acids or Bases to Buffers......Page 772
 Chemistry and Life: Blood as a Buffered Solution......Page 775
  Strong Acid–Strong Base Titrations......Page 776
  Weak Acid–Strong Base Titrations......Page 778
  Titrating with an Acid–Base Indicator......Page 782
  Titrations of Polyprotic Acids......Page 784
 17.4. Solubility Equilibria......Page 785
  The Solubility-Product Constant, Ksp......Page 786
  Solubility and Ksp......Page 787
 A Closer Look: Limitations of Solubility Products......Page 789
  Solubility and pH......Page 790
 Chemistry and Life: Tooth Decay and Fluoridation......Page 792
  Amphoterism......Page 795
 17.6. Precipitation and Separation of Ions......Page 797
  Selective Precipitation of Ions......Page 798
 17.7. Qualitative Analysis for Metallic Elements......Page 799
 Chapter Summary and Key Terms......Page 802
 Key Equations......Page 803
 Exercises......Page 804
 Additional Exercises......Page 809
 Integrative Exercises......Page 810
 Design an Experiment......Page 811
 A Closer Look: Lead Contamination in Drinking Water......Page 796
18. Chemistry of the Environment......Page 812
 18.1. Earth’s Atmosphere......Page 814
  Composition of the Atmosphere......Page 815
  Photochemical Reactions in the Atmosphere......Page 816
  Ozone in the Stratosphere......Page 819
  The Ozone Layer and Its Depletion......Page 820
  Sulfur Compounds and Acid Rain......Page 822
  Nitrogen Oxides and Photochemical Smog......Page 825
  Greenhouse Gases: Water Vapor, Carbon Dioxide, and Climate......Page 826
  The Global Water Cycle......Page 830
  Salt Water: Earth’s Oceans and Seas......Page 831
  Freshwater and Groundwater......Page 832
 A Closer Look: The Ogallala Aquifer—A Shrinking Resource......Page 833
  Water Purification: Desalination......Page 834
  Water Purification: Municipal Treatment......Page 835
 Chemistry and Life: Ocean Acidification......Page 838
  Greener Reagents and Processes......Page 840
 Learning Outcomes......Page 843
 Exercises......Page 844
 Additional Exercises......Page 849
 Integrative Exercises......Page 850
 Design an Experiment......Page 851
 A Closer Look: Other Greenhouse Gases......Page 829
 A Closer Look: Fracking and Water Quality......Page 836
19. Chemical Thermodynamics......Page 852
 19.1. Spontaneous Processes......Page 854
  Seeking a Criterion for Spontaneity......Page 855
  Reversible and Irreversible Processes......Page 856
  The Relationship between Entropy and Heat......Page 858
  S for Phase Changes......Page 859
 A Closer Look: The Entropy Change When a Gas Expands Isothermally......Page 860
  Expansion of a Gas at the Molecular Level......Page 861
  Boltzmann’s Equation and Microstates......Page 862
  Molecular Motions and Energy......Page 864
  Making Qualitative Predictions about S......Page 865
  The Third Law of Thermodynamics......Page 867
 Chemistry and Life: Entropy and Human Society......Page 868
  Standard Molar Entropies......Page 869
  Entropy Changes in the Surroundings......Page 870
 19.5. Gibbs Free Energy......Page 871
  Standard Free Energy of Formation......Page 874
 19.6. Free Energy and Temperature......Page 876
  Free Energy under Nonstandard Conditions......Page 878
  Relationship between G ° and K......Page 880
 Chapter Summary and Key Terms......Page 882
 Key Equations......Page 883
 Exercises......Page 884
 Additional Exercises......Page 890
 Integrative Exercises......Page 892
 Design an Experiment......Page 893
 A Closer Look: What’s “Free” About Free Energy?......Page 875
 Chemistry and Life: Driving Nonspontaneous Reactions: Coupling Reactions......Page 881
20. Electrochemistry......Page 894
 20.1. Oxidation States and Oxidation– Reduction Reactions......Page 896
  Balancing Equations by the Method of Half-Reactions......Page 898
  Balancing Equations for Reactions Occurring in Basic Solution......Page 901
 20.3. Voltaic Cells......Page 903
 20.4. Cell Potentials under Standard Conditions......Page 906
  Standard Reduction Potentials......Page 907
  Strengths of Oxidizing and Reducing Agents......Page 912
 20.5. Free Energy and Redox Reactions......Page 914
  Emf, Free Energy, and the Equilibrium Constant......Page 915
 A Closer Look: Electrical Work......Page 917
  The Nernst Equation......Page 918
  Concentration Cells......Page 920
 20.7. Batteries and Fuel Cells......Page 923
  Nickel–Cadmium and Nickel–Metal Hydride Batteries......Page 924
  Hydrogen Fuel Cells......Page 925
  Corrosion of Iron (Rusting)......Page 928
  Preventing Corrosion of Iron......Page 929
 20.9. Electrolysis......Page 930
  Quantitative Aspects of Electrolysis......Page 932
 Chapter Summary and Key Terms......Page 935
 Exercises......Page 936
 Additional Exercises......Page 943
 Integrative Exercises......Page 944
 Design an Experiment......Page 945
 Chemistry and Life: Heartbeats and Electrocardiography......Page 922
 Chemistry Put to Work: Batteries for Hybrid and Electric Vehicles......Page 926
 Chemistry Put to Work: Electrometallurgy of Aluminum......Page 933
21. Nuclear Chemistry......Page 946
  Nuclear Equations......Page 948
  Types of Radioactive Decay......Page 949
  Neutron-to-Proton Ratio......Page 951
  Radioactive Decay Chains......Page 953
  Further Observations......Page 954
 21.3. Nuclear Transmutations......Page 955
  Accelerating Charged Particles......Page 956
  Transuranium Elements......Page 957
 21.4. Rates of Radioactive Decay......Page 958
  Radiometric Dating......Page 959
  Calculations Based on Half-Life......Page 961
  Radiotracers......Page 963
 21.6. Energy Changes in Nuclear Reactions......Page 965
  Nuclear Binding Energies......Page 967
 21.7. Nuclear Power: Fission......Page 968
 A Closer Look: The Dawning of the Nuclear Age......Page 971
  Nuclear Waste......Page 973
 21.8. Nuclear Power: Fusion......Page 974
 21.9. Radiation in the Environment and Living Systems......Page 976
  Radiation Doses......Page 977
 Chapter Summary and Key Terms......Page 979
 Learning Outcomes......Page 980
 Exercises......Page 981
 Additional Exercises......Page 985
 Integrative Exercises......Page 986
 Design an Experiment......Page 987
 Chemistry and Life: Medical Applications of Radiotracers......Page 964
 A Closer Look: Nuclear Synthesis of the Elements......Page 975
 Chemistry and Life: Radiation Therapy......Page 978
22. Chemistry of the Nonmetals......Page 988
 22.1. Periodic Trends and Chemical Reactions......Page 990
  Chemical Reactions......Page 991
  Isotopes of Hydrogen......Page 992
  Properties of Hydrogen......Page 993
 A Closer Look: The Hydrogen Economy......Page 994
  Binary Hydrogen Compounds......Page 995
 22.3. Group 18: The Noble Gases......Page 996
  Noble-Gas Compounds......Page 997
  Properties and Production of the Halogens......Page 998
  Oxyacids and Oxyanions......Page 1000
  Properties of Oxygen......Page 1001
  Oxides......Page 1002
  Elements......Page 22
 22.6. The Other Group 16 Elements: S, Se, Te, and Po......Page 1004
  Sulfides......Page 1005
  Oxides, Oxyacids, and Oxyanions of Sulfur......Page 1006
  Hydrogen Compounds of Nitrogen......Page 1008
  Oxides and Oxyacids of Nitrogen......Page 1009
 Chemistry and Life: Nitroglycerin, Nitric Oxide, and Heart Disease......Page 1011
  Phosphorus Halides......Page 1012
  Oxy Compounds of Phosphorus......Page 1013
  Elemental Forms of Carbon......Page 1015
 Chemistry Put to Work: Carbon Fibers and Composites......Page 1016
  Carbonic Acid and Carbonates......Page 1017
  General Characteristics of the Group......Page 1018
  Silicates......Page 1019
  Glass......Page 1021
 22.11. Boron......Page 1022
  Chapter Summary and Key Terms......Page 1024
  Exercises......Page 1025
  Additional Exercises......Page 1029
  Integrative Exercises......Page 1030
  Design an Experiment......Page 1031
 Chemistry and Life: Arsenic in Drinking Water......Page 1014
23. Transition Metals and Coordination Chemistry......Page 1032
 23.1. The Transition Metals......Page 1034
  Physical Properties......Page 1035
  Electron Configurations and Oxidation States......Page 1036
  Magnetism......Page 1037
 23.2. Transition-Metal Complexes......Page 1038
  The Development of Coordination Chemistry: Werner’s Theory......Page 1039
  The Metal–Ligand Bond......Page 1041
  Charges, Coordination Numbers, and Geometries......Page 1042
 23.3. Common Ligands in Coordination Chemistry......Page 1043
  Metals and Chelates in Living Systems......Page 1045
 23.4. Nomenclature and Isomerism in Coordination Chemistry......Page 1049
  Structural Isomerism......Page 1051
  Stereoisomerism......Page 1052
  Color......Page 1055
 23.6. Crystal-Field Theory......Page 1057
  Electron Configurations in Octahedral Complexes......Page 1061
  Tetrahedral and Square-Planar Complexes......Page 1063
 Learning Outcomes......Page 1067
 Exercises......Page 1068
 Additional Exercises......Page 1072
 Integrative Exercises......Page 1074
 Design an Experiment......Page 1075
 A Closer Look: Entropy and the Chelate Effect......Page 1047
 Chemistry and Life: The Battle for Iron in Living Systems......Page 1048
 A Closer Look: Charge-Transfer Color......Page 1065
24. The Chemistry of Life: Organic and Biological Chemistry......Page 1076
  The Structures of Organic Molecules......Page 1078
  Solubility and Acid–Base Properties of Organic Compounds......Page 1079
 24.2. Introduction to Hydrocarbons......Page 1080
  Structural Isomers......Page 1081
  Nomenclature of Alkanes......Page 1082
  Reactions of Alkanes......Page 1085
  Alkenes......Page 1087
  Alkynes......Page 1089
  Addition Reactions of Alkenes and Alkynes......Page 1090
 A Closer Look: Mechanism of Addition Reactions......Page 1091
  Substitution Reactions of Aromatic Hydrocarbons......Page 1092
  Alcohols......Page 1094
  Aldehydes and Ketones......Page 1096
  Carboxylic Acids and Esters......Page 1097
  Amines and Amides......Page 1100
 24.5. Chirality in Organic Chemistry......Page 1101
  Amino Acids......Page 1103
  Polypeptides and Proteins......Page 1105
  Protein Structure......Page 1106
 24.8. Carbohydrates......Page 1108
  Disaccharides......Page 1109
  Polysaccharides......Page 1110
  Fats......Page 1111
  Phospholipids......Page 1112
 24.10. Nucleic Acids......Page 1113
 Chapter Summary and Key Terms......Page 1117
 Exercise......Page 1118
 Additional Exercises......Page 1123
 Integrative Exercises......Page 1124
 Design an Experiment......Page 1125
 Chemistry Put to Work: Gasoline......Page 1086
 Strategies for Success: What Now?......Page 1116
A: Mathematical Operations......Page 1126
B: Properties of Water......Page 1133
C: Thermodynamic Quantities for Selected Substances at 298.15 K (25 °C)......Page 1134
D: Aqueous Equilibrium Constants......Page 1138
E: Standard Reduction Potentials at 25 °C......Page 1140
Answers to Selected Exercises......Page 1141
Answers to Give it Some Thought......Page 1171
Answers to Go Figure......Page 1177
Answers to Selected Practice Exercises......Page 1183
Glossary......Page 1191
Photo and Art Credits......Page 1209
Index......Page 1213
Fundamental Constants......Page 1250
Periodic Table of the Elements......Page 1251
Back Cover......Page 1252