Chemistry: Structure and Properties

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Title
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Contents
Preface
1 Atoms
	1.1 A Particulate View of the World: Structure Determines Properties
	1.2 Classifying Matter: A Particulate View
		The States of Matter: Solid, Liquid, and Gas
		Elements, Compounds, and Mixtures
	1.3 The Scientific Approach to Knowledge
		The Importance of Measurement in Science
		Creativity and Subjectivity in Science
	1.4 Early Ideas about the Building Blocks of Matter
	1.5 Modern Atomic Theory and the Laws That Led to It
		The Law of Conservation of Mass
		The Law of Definite Proportions
		The Law of Multiple Proportions
		John Dalton and the Atomic Theory
	1.6 The Discovery of the Electron
		Cathode Rays
		Millikan’s Oil Drop Experiment: The Charge of the Electron
	1.7 The Structure of the Atom
	1.8 Subatomic Particles: Protons, Neutrons, and Electrons
		Elements: Defined by Their Numbers of Protons
		Isotopes: When the Number of Neutrons Varies
		Ions: Losing and Gaining Electrons
	1.9 Atomic Mass: The Average Mass of an Element’s Atoms
		Mass Spectrometry: Measuring the Mass of Atoms and Molecules
	1.10 The Origins of Atoms and Elements
	REVIEW
		Self-Assessment Quiz
		Key Learning Outcomes
		Key Terms
		Key Concepts
		Key Equations and Relationships
	EXERCISES
		Review Questions
		Problems by Topic
		Cumulative Problems
		Challenge Problems
		Conceptual Problems
		Answers
to Conceptual Connections
2 Measurement, Problem Solving, and the Mole Concept
	2.1 The Metric Mix-up: A $125 Million Unit Error
	2.2 The Reliability of a Measurement
		Reporting Measurements to Reflect Certainty
		Precision and Accuracy
	2.3 Density
	2.4 Energy and Its Units
		The Nature of Energy
		Energy Units
		Quantifying Changes in Energy
	2.5 Converting between Units
	2.6 Problem-Solving Strategies
		Units Raised to a Power
		Order-of-Magnitude Estimations
	2.7 Solving Problems Involving Equations
	2.8 Atoms and the Mole: How Many Particles?
		The Mole: A Chemist’s “Dozen”
		Converting between Number of Moles and Number of Atoms
		Converting between Mass and Amount (Number of Moles)
	REVIEW
		Self-Assessment Quiz
		Key Learning Outcomes
		Key Terms
		Key Concepts
		Key Equations and Relationships
	EXERCISES
		Review Questions
		Problems by Topic
		Cumulative Problems
		Challenge Problems
		Conceptual Problems
		Answers to Conceptual Connections
3 The Quantum-Mechanical Model of the Atom
	3.1 Schrödinger’s Cat
	3.2 The Nature of Light
		The Wave Nature of Light
		The Electromagnetic Spectrum
		Interference and Diffraction
		The Particle Nature of Light
	3.3 Atomic Spectroscopy and the Bohr Model
		Atomic Spectra
		The Bohr Model
		Atomic Spectroscopy and the Identification of Elements
	3.4 The Wave Nature of Matter: The de Broglie Wavelength, the Uncertainty Principle, and Indeterminacy
		The de Broglie Wavelength
		The Uncertainty Principle
		Indeterminacy and Probability Distribution Maps
	3.5 Quantum Mechanics and the Atom
		Solutions to the Schrödinger Equation for the Hydrogen Atom
		Atomic Spectroscopy Explained
	3.6 The Shapes of Atomic Orbitals
		s Orbitals (l = 0)
		p Orbitals (l = 1)
		d Orbitals (l = 2)
		f Orbitals (l = 3)
		The Phase of Orbitals
		The Shape of Atoms
	REVIEW
		Self-Assessment Quiz
		Key Learning Outcomes
		Key Terms
		Key Concepts
		Key Equations and Relationships
	EXERCISES
		Review Questions
		Problems by Topic
		Cumulative Problems
		Challenge Problems
		Conceptual Problems
		Answers to Conceptual Connections
4 Periodic Properties of the Elements
	4.1 Aluminum: Low-Density Atoms Result in Low-Density Metal
	4.2 Finding Patterns: The Periodic Law and the Periodic Table
	4.3 Electron Configurations: How Electrons Occupy Orbitals
		Electron Spin and the Pauli Exclusion Principle
		Sublevel Energy Splitting in Multi-electron Atoms
		Electron Configurations for Multi-electron Atoms
	4.4 Electron Configurations, Valence Electrons, and the Periodic Table
		Orbital Blocks in the Periodic Table
		Writing an Electron Configuration for an Element from Its Position in the Periodic Table
		The Transition and Inner Transition Elements
	4.5 How the Electron Configuration of an Element Relates to Its Properties
		Metals and Nonmetals
		Families of Elements
		The Formation of Ions
	4.6 Periodic Trends in the Size of Atoms and Effective Nuclear Charge
		Effective Nuclear Charge
		Atomic Radii and the Transition Elements
	4.7 Ions: Electron Configurations, Magnetic Properties, Ionic Radii, and Ionization Energy
		Electron Configurations and Magnetic Properties of Ions
		Ionic Radii
		Ionization Energy
		Trends in First Ionization Energy
		Exceptions to Trends in First Ionization Energy
		Trends in Second and Successive Ionization Energies
	4.8 Electron Affinities and Metallic Character
		Electron Affinity
		Metallic Character
	REVIEW
		Self-Assessment Quiz
		Key Learning Outcomes
		Key Terms
		Key Concepts
		Key Equations and Relationships
	EXERCISES
		Review Questions
		Problems by Topic
		Cumulative Problems
		Challenge Problems
		Conceptual Problems
		Answers to Conceptual Connections
5 Molecules and Compounds
	5.1 Hydrogen, Oxygen, and Water
	5.2 Types of Chemical Bonds
	5.3 Representing Compounds: Chemical Formulas and Molecular Models
		Types of Chemical Formulas
		Molecular Models
	5.4 The Lewis Model: Representing Valence  Electrons with Dots
	5.5 Ionic Bonding: The Lewis Model and Lattice Energies
		Ionic Bonding and Electron Transfer
		Lattice Energy: The Rest of the Story
		Ionic Bonding: Models and Reality
	5.6 Ionic Compounds: Formulas and Names
		Writing Formulas for Ionic Compounds
		Naming Ionic Compounds
		Naming Binary Ionic Compounds Containing a Metal That Forms Only One Type of Cation
		Naming Binary Ionic Compounds Containing a Metal That Forms More than One Kind of Cation
		Naming Ionic Compounds Containing Polyatomic Ions
		Hydrated Ionic Compounds
	5.7 Covalent Bonding: Simple Lewis Structures
		Single Covalent Bonds
		Double and Triple Covalent Bonds
		Covalent Bonding: Models and Reality
	5.8 Molecular Compounds: Formulas and Names
	5.9 Formula Mass and the Mole Concept for Compounds
		Molar Mass of a Compound
		Using Molar Mass to Count Molecules by Weighing
	5.10 Composition of Compounds
		Mass Percent Composition as a Conversion Factor
		Conversion Factors from Chemical Formulas
	5.11 Determining a Chemical Formula from Experimental Data
		Calculating Molecular Formulas for Compounds
		Combustion Analysis
	5.12 Organic Compounds
	REVIEW
		Self-Assessment Quiz
		Key Learning Outcomes
		Key Terms
		Key Concepts
		Key Equations and Relationships
	EXERCISES
		Review Questions
		Problems by Topic
		Cumulative Problems
		Challenge Problems
		Conceptual Problems
		Answers to Conceptual Connections
6 Chemical Bonding I: Drawing Lewis Structures and Determining Molecular Shapes
	6.1 Morphine: A Molecular Imposter
	6.2 Electronegativity and Bond Polarity
		Electronegativity
		Bond Polarity, Dipole Moment, and Percent Ionic Character
	6.3 Writing Lewis Structures for Molecular Compounds and Polyatomic Ions
		Writing Lewis Structures for Molecular Compounds
		Writing Lewis Structures for Polyatomic Ions
	6.4 Resonance and Formal Charge
		Resonance
		Formal Charge
	6.5 Exceptions to the Octet Rule: Odd-Electron Species, Incomplete Octets, and Expanded Octets
		Odd-Electron Species
		Incomplete Octets
		Expanded Octets
	6.6 Bond Energies and Bond Lengths
		Bond Energy
		Bond Length
	6.7 VSEPR Theory: The Five Basic Shapes
		Two Electron Groups: Linear Geometry
		Three Electron Groups: Trigonal Planar Geometry
		Four Electron Groups: Tetrahedral Geometry
		Five Electron Groups: Trigonal Bipyramidal Geometry
		Six Electron Groups: Octahedral Geometry
	6.8 VSEPR Theory: The Effect of Lone Pairs
		Four Electron Groups with Lone Pairs
		Five Electron Groups with Lone Pairs
		Six Electron Groups with Lone Pairs
	6.9 VSEPR Theory: Predicting Molecular Geometries
		Representing Molecular Geometries on Paper
		Predicting the Shapes of Larger Molecules
	6.10 Molecular Shape and Polarity
		Vector Addition
	REVIEW
		Self-Assessment Quiz
		Key Learning Outcomes
		Key Terms
		Key Concepts
		Key Equations and Relationships
	EXERCISES
		Review Questions
		Problems by Topic
		Cumulative Problems
		Challenge Problems
		Conceptual Problems
		Answers to Conceptual Connections
7 Chemical Bonding II: Valence Bond Theory and Molecular Orbital Theory
	7.1 Oxygen: A Magnetic Liquid
	7.2 Valence Bond Theory: Orbital Overlap as a Chemical Bond
	7.3 Valence Bond Theory: Hybridization of Atomic Orbitals
		sp3 Hybridization
		sp2 Hybridization and Double Bonds
		sp Hybridization and Triple Bonds
		sp3d and sp3d2 Hybridization
		Writing Hybridization and Bonding Schemes
	7.4 Molecular Orbital Theory: Electron Delocalization
		Linear Combination of Atomic Orbitals (LCAO)
		Second-Period Homonuclear Diatomic Molecules
		Second-Period Heteronuclear Diatomic Molecules
	7.5 Molecular Orbital Theory: Polyatomic Molecules
	7.6 Bonding in Metals and Semiconductors
		Bonding in Metals: The Electron Sea Model
		Semiconductors and Band Theory
		Doping: Controlling the Conductivity of Semiconductors
	REVIEW
		Self-Assessment Quiz
		Key Learning Outcomes
		Key Terms
		Key Concepts
		Key Equations and Relationships
	EXERCISES
		Review Questions
		Problems by Topic
		Cumulative Problems
		Challenge Problems
		Conceptual Problems
		Answers to Conceptual Connections
8 Chemical Reactions and Chemical Quantities
	8.1 Climate Change and the Combustion of Fossil Fuels
	8.2 Chemical Change
	8.3 Writing and Balancing Chemical Equations
	8.4 Reaction Stoichiometry: How Much Carbon Dioxide?
		Making Pizza: The Relationships among Ingredients
		Making Molecules: Mole-to-Mole Conversions
		Making Molecules: Mass-to-Mass Conversions
	8.5 Limiting Reactant, Theoretical Yield, and Percent Yield
	8.6 Three Examples of Chemical Reactions: Combustion, Alkali Metals, and Halogens
		Combustion Reactions
		Alkali Metal Reactions
		Halogen Reactions
	REVIEW
		Self-Assessment Quiz
		Key Learning Outcomes
		Key Terms
		Key Concepts
		Key Equations and Relationships
	EXERCISES
		Review Questions
		Problems by Topic
		Cumulative Problems
		Challenge Problems
		Conceptual Problems
		Answers to Conceptual Connections
9 Introduction to Solutions and Aqueous
Reactions
	9.1 Molecular Gastronomy
	9.2 Solution Concentration
		Quantifying Solution Concentration
		Using Molarity in Calculations
		Solution Dilution
	9.3 Solution Stoichiometry
	9.4 Types of Aqueous Solutions and Solubility
		Electrolyte and Nonelectrolyte Solutions
		The Solubility of Ionic Compounds
	9.5 Precipitation Reactions
	9.6 Representing Aqueous Reactions: Molecular, Ionic, and Complete Ionic Equations
	9.7 Acid–Base Reactions
		Properties of Acids and Bases
		Naming Oxyacids
		Acid–Base Reactions
		Acid–Base Titrations
	9.8 Gas-Evolution Reactions
	9.9 Oxidation–Reduction Reactions
		Oxidation States
		Identifying Redox Reactions
	REVIEW
		Self-Assessment Quiz
		Key Learning Outcomes
		Key Terms
		Key Concepts
		Key Equations and Relationships
	EXERCISES
		Review Questions
		Problems by Topic
		Cumulative Problems
		Challenge Problems
		Conceptual Problems
		Answers to Conceptual Connections
10 Thermochemistry
	10.1 On Fire, But Not Consumed
	10.2 The Nature of Energy: Key Definitions
	10.3 The First Law of Thermodynamics: There Is No Free Lunch
	10.4 Quantifying Heat and Work
		Heat
		Work: Pressure–Volume Work
	10.5 Measuring E for Chemical Reactions: Constant-Volume Calorimetry
	10.6 Enthalpy: The Heat Evolved in a Chemical Reaction at Constant Pressure
		Exothermic and Endothermic Processes: A Particulate View
		Stoichiometry Involving H: Thermochemical Equations
	10.7 Measuring H for Chemical Reactions: Constant-Pressure Calorimetry
	10.8 Relationships Involving Hrxn
	10.9 Determining Enthalpies of Reaction from Bond Energies
	10.10 Determining Enthalpies of Reaction from Standard Enthalpies of Formation
		Standard States and Standard Enthalpy Changes
		Calculating the Standard Enthalpy Change for a Reaction
	10.11 Lattice Energies for Ionic Compounds
		Calculating Lattice Energy: The Born–Haber Cycle
		Trends in Lattice Energies: Ion Size
		Trends in Lattice Energies: Ion Charge
	REVIEW
		Self-Assessment Quiz
		Key Learning Outcomes
		Key Terms
		Key Concepts
		Key Equations and Relationships
	EXERCISES
		Review Questions
		Problems by Topic
		Cumulative Problems
		Challenge Problems
		Conceptual Problems
		Answers to Conceptual Connections
11 Gases
	11.1 Supersonic Skydiving and the Risk of 
Decompression
	11.2 Pressure: The Result of Particle Collisions
		Pressure Units
		The Manometer: A Way to Measure Pressure in the Laboratory
	11.3 The Simple Gas Laws: Boyle’s Law, Charles’s Law, and Avogadro’s Law
		Boyle’s Law: Volume and Pressure
		Charles’s Law: Volume and Temperature
		Avogadro’s Law: Volume and Amount (in Moles)
	11.4 The Ideal Gas Law
	11.5 Applications of the Ideal Gas Law: Molar Volume, Density, and Molar Mass of a Gas
		Molar Volume at Standard Temperature and Pressure
		Density of a Gas
		Molar Mass of a Gas
	11.6 Mixtures of Gases and Partial Pressures
		Deep-Sea Diving and Partial Pressures
		Collecting Gases over Water
	11.7 A Particulate Model for Gases: Kinetic Molecular Theory
		Kinetic Molecular Theory, Pressure, and the Simple Gas Laws
		Kinetic Molecular Theory and the Ideal Gas Law
	11.8 Temperature and Molecular Velocities
	11.9 Mean Free Path, Diffusion, and Effusion of Gases
	11.10 Gases in Chemical Reactions: Stoichiometry Revisited
		Molar Volume and Stoichiometry
	11.11 Real Gases: The Effects of Size and Intermolecular Forces
		The Effect of the Finite Volume of Gas Particles
		The Effect of Intermolecular Forces
		Van der Waals Equation
		Real Gases
	REVIEW
		Self-Assessment Quiz
		Key Learning Outcomes
		Key Terms
		Key Concepts
		Key Equations and Relationships
	EXERCISES
		Review Questions
		Problems by Topic
		Cumulative Problems
		Challenge Problems
		Conceptual Problems
		Answers to Conceptual Connections
12 Liquids, Solids, and Intermolecular Forces
	12.1 Structure Determines Properties
	12.2 Solids, Liquids, and Gases: A Molecular Comparison
		Changes between States
	12.3 Intermolecular Forces: The Forces That Hold Condensed States Together
		Dispersion Force
		Dipole–Dipole Force
		Hydrogen Bonding
		Ion–Dipole Force
	12.4 Intermolecular Forces in Action: Surface Tension, Viscosity, and Capillary Action
		Surface Tension
		Viscosity
		Capillary Action
	12.5 Vaporization and Vapor Pressure
		The Process of Vaporization
		The Energetics of Vaporization
		Vapor Pressure and Dynamic Equilibrium
		Temperature Dependence of Vapor Pressure and Boiling Point
		The Critical Point: The Transition to an Unusual State of Matter
	12.6 Sublimation and Fusion
		Sublimation
		Fusion
		Energetics of Melting and Freezing
	12.7 Heating Curve for Water
	12.8 Water: An Extraordinary Substance
	REVIEW
		Self-Assessment Quiz
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		Key Terms
		Key Concepts
		Key Equations and Relationships
	EXERCISES
		Review Questions
		Problems by Topic
		Cumulative Problems
		Challenge Problems
		Conceptual Problems
		Answers to Conceptual Connections
13 Phase Diagrams and Crystalline Solids
	13.1 Sliding Glaciers
	13.2 Phase Diagrams
		The Major Features of a Phase Diagram
		Navigation within a Phase Diagram
		The Phase Diagrams of Other Substances
	13.3 Crystalline Solids: Determining Their Structure by X-Ray Crystallography
	13.4 Crystalline Solids: Unit Cells and Basic Structures
		The Unit Cell
		Closest-Packed Structures
	13.5 Crystalline Solids: The Fundamental Types
		Molecular Solids
		Ionic Solids
		Atomic Solids
	13.6 The Structures of Ionic Solids
	13.7 Network Covalent Atomic Solids: Carbon and Silicates
		Carbon
		Silicates
	REVIEW
		Self-Assessment Quiz
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		Key Terms
		Key Concepts
		Key Equations and Relationships
	EXERCISES
		Review Questions
		Problems by Topic
		Cumulative Problems
		Challenge Problems
		Conceptual Problems
		Answers to Conceptual Connections
14 Solutions
	14.1 Antifreeze in Frogs
	14.2 Types of Solutions and Solubility
		Nature’s Tendency toward Mixing: Entropy
		The Effect of Intermolecular Forces
	14.3 Energetics of Solution Formation
		Energy Changes during Solution Formation
		Aqueous Solutions and Heats of Hydration
	14.4 Solution Equilibrium and Factors Affecting Solubility
		The Effect of Temperature on the Solubility of Solids
		Factors Affecting the Solubility of Gases in Water
	14.5 Expressing Solution Concentration
		Molarity
		Molality
		Parts by Mass and Parts by Volume
		Mole Fraction and Mole Percent
	14.6 Colligative Properties: Vapor Pressure Lowering, Freezing Point Depression, Boiling Point Elevation, and Osmotic Pressure
		Vapor Pressure Lowering
		Vapor Pressures of Solutions Containing a Volatile (Nonelectrolyte) Solute
		Freezing Point Depression and Boiling Point Elevation
		Osmotic Pressure
	14.7 Colligative Properties of Strong Electrolyte Solutions
		Strong Electrolytes and Vapor Pressure
		Colligative Properties and Medical Solutions
	REVIEW
		Self-Assessment Quiz
		Key Learning Outcomes
		Key Terms
		Key Concepts
		Key Equations and Relationships
	EXERCISES
		Review Questions
		Problems by Topic
		Cumulative Problems
		Challenge Problems
		Conceptual Problems
		Answers to Conceptual Connections
15 Chemical Kinetics
	15.1 Catching Lizards
	15.2 Rates of Reaction and the Particulate Nature of Matter
		The Concentration of the Reactant Particles
		The Temperature of the Reactant Mixture
		The Structure and Orientation of the Colliding Particles
	15.3 Defining and Measuring the Rate of a Chemical Reaction
		Defining Reaction Rate
		Measuring Reaction Rates
	15.4 The Rate Law: The Effect of Concentration on Reaction Rate
		Determining the Order of a Reaction
		Reaction Order for Multiple Reactants
	15.5 The Integrated Rate Law: The Dependence of Concentration on Time
		Integrated Rate Laws
		The Half-Life of a Reaction
	15.6 The Effect of Temperature on Reaction Rate
		The Arrhenius Equation
		Arrhenius Plots: Experimental Measurements of the Frequency Factor and the Activation Energy
		The Collision Model: A Closer Look at the Frequency Factor
	15.7 Reaction Mechanisms
		Rate Laws for Elementary Steps
		Rate-Determining Steps and Overall Reaction Rate Laws
		Mechanisms with a Fast Initial Step
	15.8 Catalysis
		Homogeneous and Heterogeneous Catalysis
		Enzymes: Biological Catalysts
	REVIEW
		Self-Assessment Quiz
		Key Learning Outcomes
		Key Terms
		Key Concepts
		Key Equations and Relationships
	EXERCISES
		Review Questions
		Problems by Topic
		Cumulative Problems
		Challenge Problems
		Conceptual Problems
		Answers to Conceptual Connections
16 Chemical Equilibrium
	16.1 Fetal Hemoglobin and Equilibrium
	16.2 The Concept of Dynamic Equilibrium
	16.3 The Equilibrium Constant (K)
		Expressing Equilibrium Constants for Chemical Reactions
		The Significance of the Equilibrium Constant
		Relationships between the Equilibrium Constant and the Chemical Equation
	16.4 Expressing the Equilibrium Constant in Terms of Pressure
		Units of K
	16.5 Heterogeneous Equilibria: Reactions Involving Solids and Liquids
	16.6 Calculating the Equilibrium Constant from Measured Equilibrium Concentrations
	16.7 The Reaction Quotient: Predicting the Direction of Change
	16.8 Finding Equilibrium Concentrations
		Finding Equilibrium Concentrations from the Equilibrium Constant and All but One of the Equilibrium Concentrations of the Reactants and Products
		Finding Equilibrium Concentrations from the Equilibrium Constant and Initial Concentrations or Pressures
		Simplifying Approximations in Working Equilibrium Problems
	16.9 Le Châtelier’s Principle: How a System at Equilibrium Responds to Disturbances
		The Effect of a Concentration Change on Equilibrium
		The Effect of a Volume (or Pressure) Change on Equilibrium
		The Effect of a Temperature Change on Equilibrium
	REVIEW
		Self-Assessment Quiz
		Key Learning Outcomes
		Key Terms
		Key Concepts
		Key Equations and Relationships
	EXERCISES
		Review Questions
		Problems by Topic
		Cumulative Problems
		Challenge Problems
		Conceptual Problems
		Answers to Conceptual Connections
17 Acids and Bases
	17.1 Batman’s Basic Blunder
	17.2 The Nature of Acids and Bases
	17.3 Definitions of Acids and Bases
		The Arrhenius Definition
		The Brønsted–Lowry Definition
	17.4 Acid Strength and Molecular Structure
		Binary Acids
		Oxyacids
	17.5 Acid Strength and the Acid Ionization Constant (Ka)
		Strong Acids
		Weak Acids
		The Acid Ionization Constant (Ka)
	17.6 Autoionization of Water and pH
		Specifying the Acidity or Basicity of a Solution: The pH Scale
		pOH and Other p Scales
	17.7 Finding the [H3O+] and pH of Strong and Weak Acid Solutions
		Strong Acids
		Weak Acids
		Percent Ionization of a Weak Acid
		Mixtures of Acids
	17.8 Finding the [OH-] and pH of Strong and Weak Base Solutions
		Strong Bases
		Weak Bases
		Finding the [OH-] and pH of Basic Solutions
	17.9 The Acid–Base Properties of Ions and Salts
		Anions as Weak Bases
		Cations as Weak Acids
		Classifying Salt Solutions as Acidic, Basic, or Neutral
	17.10 Polyprotic Acids
		Finding the pH of Polyprotic Acid Solutions
		Finding the Concentration of the Anions for a Weak Diprotic Acid Solution
	17.11 Lewis Acids and Bases
		Molecules That Act as Lewis Acids
		Cations That Act as Lewis Acids
	REVIEW
		Self-Assessment Quiz
		Key Learning Outcomes
		Key Terms
		Key Concepts
		Key Equations and Relationships
	EXERCISES
		Review Questions
		Problems by Topic
		Cumulative Problems
		Challenge Problems
		Conceptual Problems
		Answers to Conceptual Connections
18 Aqueous Ionic Equilibrium
	18.1 The Danger of Antifreeze
	18.2 Buffers: Solutions That Resist pH Change
		Calculating the pH of a Buffer Solution
		The Henderson–Hasselbalch Equation
		Calculating pH Changes in a Buffer Solution
		Buffers Containing a Base and Its Conjugate Acid
	18.3 Buffer Effectiveness: Buffer Range and Buffer Capacity
	18.3 Buffer Effectiveness: Buffer Range and Buffer Capacity
		Relative Amounts of Acid and Base
		Absolute Concentrations of the Acid and Conjugate Base
		Buffer Range
		Buffer Capacity
	18.4 Titrations and pH Curves
		The Titration of a Strong Acid with a Strong Base
		The Titration of a Weak Acid with a Strong Base
		The Titration of a Weak Base with a Strong Acid
		The Titration of a Polyprotic Acid
		Indicators: pH-Dependent Colors
	18.5 Solubility Equilibria and the Solubility-Product Constant
		Ksp and Molar Solubility
		Ksp and Relative Solubility
		The Effect of a Common Ion on Solubility
		The Effect of pH on Solubility
	18.6 Precipitation
		Selective Precipitation
	18.7 Complex Ion Equilibria
		The Effect of Complex Ion Equilibria on Solubility
		The Solubility of Amphoteric Metal Hydroxides
	REVIEW
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		Key Terms
		Key Concepts
		Key Equations and Relationships
	EXERCISES
		Review Questions
		Problems by Topic
		Cumulative Problems
		Chalenge Problems
		Conceptual Problems
		Answers to Conceptual Conections
19 Free Energy and Thermodynamics
	19.1 Energy Spreads Out
	19.2 Spontaneous and Nonspontaneous Processes
	19.3 Entropy and the Second Law of Thermodynamics
		Entropy
		The Second Law of Thermodynamics
		Macrostates and Microstates
		The Units of Entropy
	19.4 Predicting Entropy and Entropy Changes for Chemical Reactions
		The Entropy Change Associated with a Change in State
		The Entropy Change Associated with a Chemical Reaction (S°rxn)
		Standard Molar Entropies (S°) and the Third Law of Thermodynamics
		Calculating the Standard Entropy Change (S°rxn) for a Reaction
	19.5 Heat Transfer and Entropy Changes of the Surroundings
		The Temperature Dependence of Ssurr
		Quantifying Entropy Changes in the Surroundings
	19.6 Gibbs Free Energy
		The Effect of H, S, and T on Spontaneity
	19.7 Free Energy Changes in Chemical Reactions: Calculating G°rxn
		Calculating Standard Free Energy Changes with G°rxn = H°rxn - T S°rxn
		Calculating G°rxn with Tabulated Values of Free Energies of Formation
		Calculating G°rxn for a Stepwise Reaction from the Changes in Free Energy for Each of the Steps
		Making a Nonspontaneous Process Spontaneous
		Why Free Energy Is “Free”
	19.8 Free Energy Changes for Nonstandard States: The Relationship between G°rxn and Grxn
	19.9 Free Energy and Equilibrium: Relating G°rxn to the Equilibrium Constant (K)
		The Temperature Dependence of the Equilibrium Constant
	REVIEW
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	EXERCISES
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		Cumulative Problems
		Challenge Problems
		Conceptual Problems
		Answers to Conceptual Conections
20 Electrochemistry
	20.1 Lightning and Batteries
	20.2 Balancing Oxidation–Reduction Equations
	20.3 Voltaic (or Galvanic) Cells: Generating Electricity from Spontaneous Chemical Reactions
		Electrochemical Cell Notation
	20.4 Standard Electrode Potentials
		Predicting the Spontaneous Direction of an Oxidation–Reduction Reaction
		Predicting Whether a Metal Will Dissolve in Acid
	20.5 Cell Potential, Free Energy, and the Equilibrium Constant
		The Relationship between G° and E°cell
		The Relationship between E°cell and K
	20.6 Cell Potential and Concentration
		Concentration Cells
	20.7 Batteries: Using Chemistry to Generate Electricity
		Dry-Cell Batteries
		Lead–Acid Storage Batteries
		Other Rechargeable Batteries
		Fuel Cells
	20.8 Electrolysis: Driving Nonspontaneous Chemical Reactions with Electricity
		Predicting the Products of Electrolysis
		Stoichiometry of Electrolysis
	20.9 Corrosion: Undesirable Redox Reactions
	REVIEW
		Self-Assessment Quiz
		Key Learning Outcomes
		Key Terms
		Key Concepts
		Key Equations and Relationships
	EXERCISES
		Review Questions
		Problems by Topic
		Cumulative Problems
		Challenge Problems
		Conceptual Problems
		Answers to Conceptual Conections
21 Radioactivity and Nuclear Chemistry
	21.1 Diagnosing Appendicitis
	21.2 The Discovery of Radioactivity
	21.3 Types of Radioactivity
		Alpha (α) Decay
		Beta (β) Decay
		Gamma (γ) Ray Emission
		Positron Emission
		Electron Capture
	21.4 The Valley of Stability: Predicting the Type of Radioactivity
		Magic Numbers
		Radioactive Decay Series
	21.5 Detecting Radioactivity
	21.6 The Kinetics of Radioactive Decay and Radiometric Dating
		The Integrated Rate Law
		Radiocarbon Dating: Using Radioactivity to Measure the Age of Fossils and Artifacts
		Uranium/Lead Dating
	21.7 The Discovery of Fission: The Atomic Bomb and Nuclear Power
		The Atomic Bomb
		Nuclear Power: Using Fission to Generate Electricity
	21.8 Converting Mass to Energy: Mass Defect and Nuclear Binding Energy
		The Conversion of Mass to Energy
		Mass Defect and Nuclear Binding Energy
	21.9 Nuclear Fusion: The Power of the Sun
	21.10 Nuclear Transmutation and Transuranium Elements
	21.11 The Effects of Radiation on Life
		Acute Radiation Damage
		Increased Cancer Risk
		Genetic Defects
		Measuring Radiation Exposure
	21.12 Radioactivity in Medicine and Other Applications
		Diagnosis in Medicine
		Radiotherapy in Medicine
		Other Applications
	REVIEW
		Self-Assessment Quiz
		Key Learning Outcomes
		Key Terms
		Key Concepts
		Key Equations and Relationships
	EXERCISES
		Review Questions
		Problems by Topic
		Cumulative Problems
		Challenge Problems
		Conceptual Problems
		Answers to Conceptual Conections
22 Organic Chemistry
	22.1 Fragrances and Odors
	22.2 Carbon: Why It Is Unique
		Carbon’s Tendency to Form Four Covalent Bonds
		Carbon’s Ability to Form Double and Triple Bonds
		Carbon’s Tendency to Catenate
	22.3 Hydrocarbons: Compounds Containing Only Carbon and Hydrogen
		Drawing Hydrocarbon Structures
		Stereoisomerism and Optical Isomerism
	22.4 Alkanes: Saturated Hydrocarbons
		Naming Alkanes
	22.5 Alkenes and Alkynes
		Naming Alkenes and Alkynes
		Geometric (Cis–Trans) Isomerism in Alkenes
	22.6 Hydrocarbon Reactions
		Reactions of Alkanes
		Reactions of Alkenes and Alkynes
	22.7 Aromatic Hydrocarbons
		Naming Aromatic Hydrocarbons
		Reactions of Aromatic Compounds
	22.8 Functional Groups
	22.9 Alcohols
		Naming Alcohols
		About Alcohols
		Alcohol Reactions
	22.10 Aldehydes and Ketones
		Naming Aldehydes and Ketones
		About Aldehydes and Ketones
		Aldehyde and Ketone Reactions
	22.11 Carboxylic Acids and Esters
		Naming Carboxylic Acids and Esters
		About Carboxylic Acids and Esters
		Carboxylic Acid and Ester Reactions
	22.12 Ethers
		Naming Ethers
		About Ethers
	22.13 Amines
		Amine Reactions
	22.14 Polymers
	REVIEW
		Self-Assessment Quiz
		Key Learning Outcomes
		Key Terms
		Key Concepts
		Key Equations and Relationships
	EXERCISES
		Review Questions
		Problems by Topic
		Cumulative Problems
		Challenge Problems
		Conceptual Problems
		Answers to Conceptual Conections
23 Transition Metals and Coordination Compounds
	23.1 The Colors of Rubies and Emeralds
	23.2 Properties of Transition Metals
		Electron Configurations
		Atomic Size
		Ionization Energy
		Electronegativity
		Oxidation States
	23.3 Coordination Compounds
		Ligands
		Coordination Numbers and Geometries
		Naming Coordination Compounds
	23.4 Structure and Isomerization
		Structural Isomerism
		Stereoisomerism
	23.5 Bonding in Coordination Compounds
		Valence Bond Theory
		Crystal Field Theory
	23.6 Applications of Coordination Compounds
		Chelating Agents
		Chemical Analysis
		Coloring Agents
		Biomolecules
	REVIEW
		Self-Assessment Quiz
		Key Learning Outcomes
		Key Terms
		Key Concepts
		Key Equations and Relationships
	EXERCISES
		Review Questions
		Problems by Topic
		Cumulative Problems
		Challenge Problems
		Conceptual Problems
		Answers to Conceptual Conections
Appendix I The Units of Measurement
Appendix II Significant Figure Guidelines
Appendix III Common Mathematical Operations in Chemistry
	A Scientific Notation
	B Logarithms
	C Quadratic Equations
	D Graphs
Appendix IV Useful Data
	A Atomic Colors
	B Standard Thermodynamic Quantities for Selected Substances at 25 °C
	C Aqueous Equilibrium Constants
	D Standard Electrode Potentials at 25 °C
	E Vapor Pressure of Water at Various Temperatures
Appendix V Answers to Selected End-of-Chapter Problems
Appendix VIAnswers to In Chapter Practice Problems
Glossary
Credits
Index
	A
	B
	C
	D
	E
	F
	G
	H
	I
	J
	K
	L
	M
	N
	O
	P
	Q
	R
	S
	T
	U
	V
	W
	X
	Y
	Z