Chemistry: atoms first

Title
Contents
1 CHEMISTRY: THE SCIENCE OF CHANGE
	1.1 The Study of Chemistry
		• Chemistry You May Already Know 3 • The Scientific Method
	1.2 Classification of Matter
		• States of Matter 5 • Mixtures
	1.3 The Properties of Matter
		• Physical Properties 7 • Chemical Properties 7 • Extensive and Intensive Properties
	1.4 Scientific Measurement
		• SI Base Units 9 • Mass 9 • Temperature 10 • Derived Units: Volume and Density
	1.5 Uncertainty in Measurement
		• Significant Figures 14 • Calculations with Measured Numbers 15 • Accuracy and Precision 17 • Thinking Outside the Box: Tips for Success in Chemistry Class
	1.6 Using Units and Solving Problems
		• Conversion Factors 20 • Dimensional Analysis—Tracking Units
2 ATOMS AND THE PERIODIC TABLE
	2.1 Atoms First
	2.2 Subatomic Particles and Atomic Structure
		• Discovery of the Electron 34 • Radioactivity 36 • The Proton and the Nuclear Model of the Atom 37 • The Neutron
	2.3 Atomic Number, Mass Number, and Isotopes
	2.4 Average Atomic Mass
		• Thinking Outside the Box: Measuring Atomic Mass
	2.5 The Periodic Table
	2.6 The Mole and Molar Mass
		• The Mole 45 • Molar Mass 45 • Interconverting Mass, Moles, and Numbers of Atoms
3 QUANTUM THEORY AND THE ELECTRONIC STRUCTURE OF ATOMS
	3.1 Energy and Energy Changes
		• Forms of Energy 57 • Units of Energy
	3.2 The Nature of Light
		• Properties of Waves 60 • The Electromagnetic Spectrum 61 • The Double-Slit Experiment
	3.3 Quantum Theory
		• Quantization of Energy 63 • Photons and the Photoelectric Effect 64 • Thinking Outside the Box: Everyday Occurrences of the Photoelectric Effect
	3.4 Bohr’s Theory of the Hydrogen Atom
		• Atomic Line Spectra 67 • The Line Spectrum of Hydrogen
	3.5 Wave Properties of Matter
		• The de Broglie Hypothesis 74 • Diffraction of Electrons
	3.6 Quantum Mechanics
		• The Uncertainty Principle 77 • The Schrödinger Equation 78 • The Quantum Mechanical Description of the Hydrogen Atom
	3.7 Quantum Numbers
		• Principal Quantum Number (n) 79 • Angular Momentum Quantum Number (ℓ)
		• Magnetic Quantum Number (mℓ) 79 • Electron Spin Quantum Number (ms)
	3.8 Atomic Orbitals
		• s Orbitals 82 • p Orbitals 82 • d Orbitals and Other Higher-Energy Orbitals
		• Energies of Orbitals
	3.9 Electron Configurations
		• Energies of Atomic Orbitals in Many-Electron Systems 85 • The Pauli Exclusion Principle 86 • The Aufbau Principle 87 • Hund’s Rule 87 • General Rules for Writing Electron Configurations
	3.10 Electron Configurations and the Periodic Table
4 PERIODIC TRENDS OF THE ELEMENTS
	4.1 Development of the Periodic Table
	4.2 The Modern Periodic Table
		• Classification of Elements
	4.3 Effective Nuclear Charge
	4.4 Periodic Trends in Properties of Elements
		• Atomic Radius 113 • Ionization Energy 115 • Electron Affinity 118 • Metallic Character
	4.5 Electron Configuration of Ions
		• Ions of Main Group Elements 122 • Ions of d-Block Elements
	4.6 Ionic Radius
		• Comparing Ionic Radius with Atomic Radius 125 • Thinking Outside the Box: Mistaking Strontium for Calcium 126 • Isoelectronic Series
5 IONIC AND COVALENT COMPOUNDS
	5.1 Compounds
	5.2 Lewis Dot Symbols
	5.3 Ionic Compounds and Bonding
	5.4 Naming Ions and Ionic Compounds
		• Formulas of Ionic Compounds 147 • Naming Ionic Compounds
	5.5 Covalent Bonding and Molecules
		• Molecules 149 • Molecular Formulas 151 • Empirical Formulas
	5.6 Naming Molecular Compounds
		• Specifying Numbers of Atoms 155 • Compounds Containing Hydrogen 157 • Organic Compounds 158 • Thinking Outside the Box: Functional Groups
	5.7 Covalent Bonding in Ionic Species
		• Polyatomic Ions 160 • Oxoacids 162 • Hydrates 163 • Familiar Inorganic Compounds
	5.8 Molecular and Formula Masses
	5.9 Percent Composition of Compounds
	5.10 Molar Mass
		• Interconverting Mass, Moles, and Numbers of Particles 168 • Determination of Empirical Formula and Molecular Formula from Percent Composition
6 REPRESENTING MOLECULES
	6.1 The Octet Rule
		• Lewis Structures 183 • Multiple Bonds
	6.2 Electronegativity and Polarity
		• Electronegativity 187 • Dipole Moment, Partial Charges, and Percent Ionic Character
	6.3 Drawing Lewis Structures
	6.4 Lewis Structures and Formal Charge
	6.5 Resonance
	6.6 Exceptions to the Octet Rule
		• Incomplete Octets 199 • Thinking Outside the Box: Species with Unpaired Electrons
		• Odd Numbers of Electrons 200 • Expanded Octets
7 MOLECULAR GEOMETRY AND BONDING THEORIES
	7.1 Molecular Geometry
		• The VSEPR Model 216 • Electron-Domain Geometry and Molecular Geometry
		• Deviation from Ideal Bond Angles 219 • Geometry of Molecules with More than One Central Atom
	7.2 Molecular Geometry and Polarity
		• Thinking Outside the Box: Intermolecular Forces
	7.3 Valence Bond Theory
	7.4 Hybridization of Atomic Orbitals
		• Hybridization of s and p Orbitals 231 • Hybridization of s, p, and d Orbitals
	7.5 Hybridization in Molecules Containing Multiple Bonds
	7.6 Molecular Orbital Theory
		• Bonding and Antibonding Molecular Orbitals 245 • σ Molecular Orbitals 246 • Thinking Outside the Box: Phases 247 • Bond Order 247 • π Molecular Orbitals 248 • Molecular Orbital Diagrams 250 • Thinking Outside the Box: Molecular Orbitals in Heteronuclear Diatomic Species
	7.7 Bonding Theories and Descriptions of Molecules with Delocalized Bonding
8 CHEMICAL REACTIONS
	8.1 Chemical Equations
		• Interpreting and Writing Chemical Equations 267 • Balancing Chemical Equations
		• Patterns of Chemical Reactivity
	8.2 Combustion Analysis
		• Determination of Empirical Formula
	8.3 Calculations with Balanced Chemical Equations
		• Moles of Reactants and Products 277 • Mass of Reactants and Products
	8.4 Limiting Reactants
		• Determining the Limiting Reactant 281 • Reaction Yield
	8.5 Periodic Trends in Reactivity of the Main Group Elements
		• Thinking Outside the Box: Atom Economy 287 • General Trends in Reactivity
		• Reactions of the Active Metals 289 • Reactions of Other Main Group Elements
		• Comparison of Group 1A and Group 1B Elements
9 CHEMICAL REACTIONS IN AQUEOUS SOLUTIONS
	9.1 General Properties of Aqueous Solutions
		• Electrolytes and Nonelectrolytes 307 • Strong Electrolytes and Weak Electrolytes
	9.2 Precipitation Reactions
		• Solubility Guidelines for Ionic Compounds in Water 312 • Molecular Equations
		• Ionic Equations 315 • Net Ionic Equations
	9.3 Acid-Base Reactions
		• Strong Acids and Bases 317 • Brønsted Acids and Bases 317 • Acid-Base Neutralization
	9.4 Oxidation-Reduction Reactions
		• Oxidation Numbers 323 • Oxidation of Metals in Aqueous Solutions 325 • Balancing Simple Redox Equations 327 • Other Types of Redox Reactions
	9.5 Concentration of Solutions
		• Molarity 331 • Dilution 333 • Serial Dilution 337 • Thinking Outside the Box: Visible Spectrophotometry 338 • Solution Stoichiometry
	9.6 Aqueous Reactions and Chemical Analysis
		• Gravimetric Analysis 341 • Acid-Base Titrations
10 ENERGY CHANGES IN CHEMICAL REACTIONS
	10.1 Energy and Energy Changes
	10.2 Introduction to Thermodynamics
		• States and State Functions 365 • The First Law of Thermodynamics 366 • Work and Heat
	10.3 Enthalpy
		• Reactions Carried Out at Constant Volume or at Constant Pressure 368 • Enthalpy and Enthalpy Changes 370 • Thermochemical Equations
	10.4 Calorimetry
		• Specific Heat and Heat Capacity 374 • Constant-Pressure Calorimetry 374 • Constant- Volume Calorimetry 378 • Thinking Outside the Box: Heat Capacity of Calorimeters
	10.5 Hess’s Law
	10.6 Standard Enthalpies of Formation
	10.7 Bond Enthalpy and the Stability of Covalent Molecules
	10.8 Lattice Energy and the Stability of Ionic Solids
		• The Born-Haber Cycle 392 • Comparison of Ionic and Covalent Compounds
11 GASES
	11.1 Properties of Gases
	11.2 The Kinetic Molecular Theory of Gases
		• Molecular Speed 416 • Diffusion and Effusion
	11.3 Gas Pressure
		• Definition and Units of Pressure 419 • Calculation of Pressure 419 • Measurement of Pressure
	11.4 The Gas Laws
		• Boyle’s Law: The Pressure-Volume Relationship 422 • Charles’s and Gay-Lussac’s Law: The Temperature-Volume Relationship 424 • Avogadro’s Law: The Amount-Volume Relationship 426 • The Gas Laws and Kinetic Molecular Theory 428 • The Combined Gas Law: The Pressure-Temperature-Amount-Volume Relationship
	11.5 The Ideal Gas Equation
		• Applications of the Ideal Gas Equation
	11.6 Real Gases
		• Factors That Cause Deviation from Ideal Behavior 435 • The van der Waals Equation 435 • van der Waals Constants
	11.7 Gas Mixtures
		• Dalton’s Law of Partial Pressures 439 • Mole Fractions 440 • Thinking Outside the Box: Decompression Injury
	11.8 Reactions with Gaseous Reactants and Products
		• Calculating the Required Volume of a Gaseous Reactant 443 • Determining the Amount of Reactant Consumed Using Change in Pressure 444 • Using Partial Pressures to Solve Problems
12 INTERMOLECULAR FORCES AND THE PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF LIQUIDS AND SOLIDS
	12.1 Intermolecular Forces
		• Dipole-Dipole Interactions 466 • Hydrogen Bonding 466 • Dispersion Forces
		• Ion-Dipole Interactions
	12.2 Properties of Liquids
		• Surface Tension 470 • Viscosity 470 • Vapor Pressure
	12.3 Crystal Structure
		• Unit Cells 475 • Packing Spheres 476 • Closest Packing 478 • Thinking Outside the Box: X-ray Diffraction
	12.4 Types of Crystals
		• Ionic Crystals 482 • Covalent Crystals 485 • Molecular Crystals 486 • Metallic Crystals
	12.5 Amorphous Solids
	12.6 Phase Changes
		• Liquid-Vapor Phase Transition 488 • Solid-Liquid Phase Transition 490 • Solid-Vapor Phase Transition
	12.7 Phase Diagrams
13 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF SOLUTIONS
	13.1 Types of Solutions
	13.2 A Molecular View of the Solution Process
		• The Importance of Intermolecular Forces 512 • Energy and Entropy in Solution Formation
	13.3 Concentration Units
		• Molality 516 • Percent by Mass 516 • Comparison of Concentration Units
	13.4 Factors That Affect Solubility
		• Temperature 519 • Pressure
	13.5 Colligative Properties
		• Vapor-Pressure Lowering 522 • Boiling-Point Elevation 524 • Freezing-Point Depression 525 • Osmotic Pressure 527 • Electrolyte Solutions 527 • Thinking Outside the Box: Intravenous Fluids 530 • Thinking Outside the Box: Fluoride Poisoning
	13.6 Calculations Using Colligative Properties
	13.7 Colloids
14 CHEMICAL KINETICS
	14.1 Reaction Rates
	14.2 Collision Theory of Chemical Reactions
	14.3 Measuring Reaction Progress and Expressing Reaction Rate
		• Average Reaction Rate 553 • Instantaneous Rate 557 • Stoichiometry and Reaction Rate
	14.4 Dependence of Reaction Rate on Reactant Concentration
		• The Rate Law 563 • Experimental Determination of the Rate Law
	14.5 Dependence of Reactant Concentration on Time
		• First-Order Reactions 568 • Second-Order Reactions
	14.6 Dependence of Reaction Rate on Temperature
		• The Arrhenius Equation 576 • Thinking Outside the Box: Surface Area
	14.7 Reaction Mechanisms
		• Elementary Reactions 581 • Rate-Determining Step 582 • Mechanisms with a Fast First Step 586 • Experimental Support for Reaction Mechanisms
	14.8 Catalysis
		• Heterogeneous Catalysis 590 • Homogeneous Catalysis 590 • Enzymes: Biological Catalysts
15 CHEMICAL EQUILIBRIUM
	15.1 The Concept of Equilibrium
	15.2 The Equilibrium Constant
		• Calculating Equilibrium Constants 612 • Magnitude of the Equilibrium Constant
	15.3 Equilibrium Expressions
		• Heterogeneous Equilibria 616 • Manipulating Equilibrium Expressions 617 • Gaseous Equilibria
	15.4 Using Equilibrium Expressions to Solve Problems
		• Predicting the Direction of a Reaction 624 • Calculating Equilibrium Concentrations
	15.5 Factors That Affect Chemical Equilibrium
		• Addition or Removal of a Substance 630 • Changes in Volume and Pressure 633 • Changes in Temperature 634 • Catalysis 635 • Thinking Outside the Box: Biological Equilibria
16 ACIDS AND BASES
	16.1 Brønsted Acids and Bases
	16.2 Molecular Structure and Acid Strength
		• Hydrohalic Acids 659 • Oxoacids 659 • Carboxylic Acids
	16.3 The Acid-Base Properties of Water
	16.4 The pH Scale
	16.5 Strong Acids and Bases
		• Strong Acids 668 • Strong Bases
	16.6 Weak Acids and Acid Ionization Constants
		• The Ionization Constant, Ka 672 • Calculating pH from Ka 673 • Thinking Outside the Box: Acid Rain 678 • Percent Ionization 678 • Using pH to Determine Ka
	16.7 Weak Bases and Base Ionization Constants
		• The Ionization Constant Kb 682 • Calculating pH from Kb 682 • Using pH to Determine Kb
	16.8 Conjugate Acid-Base Pairs
		• The Strength of a Conjugate Acid or Base
		• The Relationship Between Ka and Kb of a Conjugate Acid-Base Pair
	16.9 Diprotic and Polyprotic Acids
	16.10 Acid-Base Properties of Salt Solutions
		• Basic Salt Solutions 691 • Acidic Salt Solutions 692 • Neutral Salt Solutions
		• Salts in Which Both the Cation and the Anion Hydrolyze
	16.11 Acid-Base Properties of Oxides and Hydroxides
		• Oxides of Metals and of Nonmetals 696 • Basic and Amphoteric Hydroxides
	16.12 Lewis Acids and Bases
17 ACID-BASE EQUILIBRIA AND SOLUBILITY EQUILIBRIA
	17.1 The Common Ion Effect
	17.2 Buffer Solutions
		• Calculating the pH of a Buffer 715 • Preparing a Buffer Solution with a Specific pH
	17.3 Acid-Base Titrations
		• Strong Acid–Strong Base Titrations 721 • Weak Acid–Strong Base Titrations 723 • Strong Acid–Weak Base Titrations 727 • Acid-Base Indicators
	17.4 Solubility Equilibria
		• Solubility Product Expression and Ksp 732 • Calculations Involving Ksp and Solubility
		• Predicting Precipitation Reactions
	17.5 Factors Affecting Solubility
		• The Common Ion Effect 737 • pH 740 • Complex Ion Formation 742 • Thinking Outside the Box: Equilibrium and Tooth Decay
	17.6 Separation of Ions Using Differences in Solubility
		• Fractional Precipitation 747 • Qualitative Analysis of Metal Ions in Solution
18 ENTROPY, FREE ENERGY, AND EQUILIBRIUM
	18.1 Spontaneous Processes
	18.2 Entropy
		• A Qualitative Description of Entropy 764 • A Quantitative Definition of Entropy
	18.3 Entropy Changes in a System
		• Calculating ΔSsys 766 • Standard Entropy, S° 767 • Qualitatively Predicting the Sign of ΔS°sys
	18.4 Entropy Changes in the Universe
		• Calculating ΔSsurr 775 • The Second Law of Thermodynamics 775 • Thinking Outside the Box: Thermodynamics and Living Systems 778 • The Third Law of Thermodynamics
	18.5 Predicting Spontaneity
		• Gibbs Free-Energy Change, ΔG 780 • Standard Free-Energy Changes, ΔG° 782 • Using ΔG and ΔG° to Solve Problems
	18.6 Free Energy and Chemical Equilibrium
		• Relationship Between ΔG and ΔG° 786 • Relationship Between ΔG° and K
	18.7 Thermodynamics in Living Systems
19 ELECTROCHEMISTRY
	19.1 Balancing Redox Reactions
	19.2 Galvanic Cells
	19.3 Standard Reduction Potentials
	19.4 Spontaneity of Redox Reactions Under Standard-State Conditions
		• Thinking Outside the Box: Amalgam Fillings and Dental Pain
	19.5 Spontaneity of Redox Reactions Under Conditions Other Than Standard State
		• The Nernst Equation 823 • Concentration Cells
	19.6 Batteries
		• Dry Cells and Alkaline Batteries 827 • Lead Storage Batteries 828 • Lithium-Ion Batteries 828 • Fuel Cells
	19.7 Electrolysis
		• Electrolysis of Molten Sodium Chloride 830 • Electrolysis of Water 831 • Electrolysis of an Aqueous Sodium Chloride Solution 832 • Quantitative Applications of Electrolysis
	19.8 Corrosion
20 NUCLEAR CHEMISTRY
	20.1 Nuclei and Nuclear Reactions
	20.2 Nuclear Stability
		• Patterns of Nuclear Stability 853 • Nuclear Binding Energy
	20.3 Natural Radioactivity
		• Kinetics of Radioactive Decay 858 • Dating Based on Radioactive Decay
	20.4 Nuclear Transmutation
	20.5 Nuclear Fission
	20.6 Nuclear Fusion
	20.7 Uses of Isotopes
		• Chemical Analysis 873 • Isotopes in Medicine 873 • Thinking Outside the Box: Nuclear Medicine
	20.8 Biological Effects of Radiation
21 METALLURGY AND THE CHEMISTRY OF METALS
	21.1 Occurrence of Metals
	21.2 Metallurgical Processes
		• Preparation of the Ore 886 • Production of Metals 886 • The Metallurgy of Iron
		• Steelmaking 888 • Purification of Metals 890 • Thinking Outside the Box: Copper
	21.3 Band Theory of Conductivity
		• Conductors 892 • Semiconductors
	21.4 Periodic Trends in Metallic Properties
	21.5 The Alkali Metals
	21.6 The Alkaline Earth Metals
		• Magnesium 897 • Calcium
	21.7 Aluminum
22 COORDINATION CHEMISTRY
	22.1 Coordination Compounds
		• Properties of Transition Metals 907 • Ligands 909 • Nomenclature of Coordination Compounds 911 • Thinking Outside the Box: Chelation Therapy
	22.2 Structure of Coordination Compounds
	22.3 Bonding in Coordination Compounds: Crystal Field Theory
		• Crystal Field Splitting in Octahedral Complexes 917 • Color 918 • Magnetic Properties 919 • Tetrahedral and Square-Planar Complexes
	22.4 Reactions of Coordination Compounds
	22.5 Applications of Coordination Compounds
23 NONMETALLIC ELEMENTS AND THEIR COMPOUNDS
	23.1 General Properties of Nonmetals
	23.2 Hydrogen
		• Binary Hydrides 933 • Isotopes of Hydrogen 934 • Hydrogenation
		• The Hydrogen Economy
	23.3 Carbon
	23.4 Nitrogen and Phosphorus
		• Nitrogen 937 • Phosphorus
	23.5 Oxygen and Sulfur
		• Oxygen 942 • Sulfur 944 • Thinking Outside the Box: Arsenic
	23.6 The Halogens
		• Preparation and General Properties of the Halogens 949 • Compounds of the Halogens 951 • Uses of the Halogens
24 ORGANIC CHEMISTRY
	24.1 Why Carbon Is Different
	24.2 Classes of Organic Compounds
		• Basic Nomenclature 967 • Molecules with Multiple Substituents 970 • Molecules with Specific Functional Groups
	24.3 Representing Organic Molecules
		• Condensed Structural Formulas 974 • Kekulé Structures 974 • Skeletal Structures
		• Resonance
	24.4 Isomerism
		• Constitutional Isomerism 980 • Stereoisomerism 980 • Thinking Outside the Box: Thalidomide
	24.5 Organic Reactions
		• Addition Reactions 985 • Substitution Reactions 987 • Other Types of Organic Reactions
	24.6 Organic Polymers
		• Addition Polymers 995 • Condensation Polymers 995 • Biological Polymers
25 MODERN MATERIALS
	25.1 Polymers
		• Addition Polymers 1013 • Condensation Polymers 1018 • Thinking Outside the Box: Electrically Conducting Polymers
	25.2 Ceramics and Composite Materials
		• Ceramics 1021 • Composite Materials
	25.3 Liquid Crystals
	25.4 Biomedical Materials
		• Dental Implants 1026 • Soft Tissue Materials 1027 • Artificial Joints
	25.5 Nanotechnology
		• Graphite, Buckyballs, and Nanotubes
	25.6 Semiconductors
	25.7 Superconductors
Appendixes 1 Mathematical Operations
Appendix 2 Thermodynamic Data at 1 ATM and 25°C A-
Appendix 3 Ionization Constants of Weak Acids and Bases at 25°C
Appendix 4 Solubility Product Constants at 25°C
Glossary
Answers
Credits
Index