Chemistry of Biomolecules, Second Edition

Preface
1. Carbohydrates
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Occurrence and Biological Importance
1.3 Definitions
1.4 Formation of Carbohydrates in Plants
1.5 Classification of Carbohydrates 
1.6 Configurational Relationship of Monosaccharides
1.7 Epimers 
1.8 Structure and Properties of D-Glucose 
1.9 Determination of the Ring Size of Glucose 
1.10 Mutarotation 
1.11 Osazone Formation 
1.12 Ketohexoses 
1.13 Structure of D(–)-Fructose 
1.14 Reactions of Monosaccharides 
1.15 Lengthening the Carbon Chain of Aldoses–The Kiliani-Fischer Synthesis 
1.16 Shortening the Carbon Chain of Aldoses 
1.17 Interconversions 
1.18 Maltose 
1.19 Lactose 
1.20 Cellobiose 
1.21 Sucrose 
1.22 Aldopentoses—The Sugars of Nucleic Acids 
1.23 Polysaccharides 
1.24 Biosynthesis of Carbohydrates—The Calvin Cycle 
1.25 Natural Products Derived from Carbohydrates 
2. Amino Acids, Peptides, and Proteins
2.1 Introduction 
2.2 Amino Acids – The Building Blocks of Proteins 
2.3 Classification of Amino Acids 
2.4 The Essential Amino Acids 
2.5 Stereochemistry of α-Amino Acids 
2.6 Synthesis of α-Amino Acids 
2.7 Resolution of Racemic Mixtures of Amino Acids 
2.8 Stereoselective Synthesis of Amino Acids 
2.9 Biosynthesis Amino Acids
2.10 Amino Acids as Dipolar ions 
2.11 Amino Acids as Acids and Bases
2.12 Isoelectric Point
2.13 Separation of Amino Acids
2.14 Chemical Reactions of Amino Acids
2.15 Polypeptides
2.16 Synthesis of Peptides
2.17 Methods of Peptide Synthesis (Coupling Methods)
2.18 Solid Phase Peptide Synthesis
2.19 Determination of Primary Structure of Peptides
2.20 Identification of the N-Terminal Amino Acid (End Group Analysis) 
2.21 Identification of the C-Terminal Amino Acid 
2.22 Use of Enzymes
2.23 Time Course Analysis
2.24 Some interesting peptides
2.25 Importance and Biological functions of Proteins and polypeptides 
2.26 Classification of Proteins 
2.27 Molecular Shape of Proteins
2.28 Factors that Influence Molecular Shape
2.29 Some Features of Fibrous Proteins
2.30 Some Features of Globular Proteins
2.31 Structure of Proteins
2.32 Denaturation of Proteins 
3. Enzymes 
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Nomenclature and Classification of Enzymes 
3.3 Characteristics of Enzymes 
3.4 Factors Influencing Enzyme Activity 
3.5 Cofactors–Coenzymes
3.6 Structure and Functions of Various Coenzymes
3.7 Enzyme Inhibitors
3.8 Mechanism of Enzyme Catalysis
3.9 How do Substrates Bind to Enzymes
3.10 Alcholic Fermentation
3.11 Glycolysis 
3.12 Citric Acid Cycle
3.13 Biocatalysis–Importance in Green Chemistry and the Chemical Industry
4. Pyrimidines, Purines, and Nucleic Acids
4.1 Introduction and Biological Importance of Nucleic Acids
4.2 Pyrimidine
4.3 Uracil 
4.4 Thymine (5-Methyluracil) 
4.5 Cytosine 
4.6 Purines 
4.7 Adenine 
4.8 Guanine
4.9 Ureides 
4.10 Uric Acid 
4.11 Caffeine 
4.12 Nucleosides 
4.13 Nucleotides 
4.14 Polynucleotides
4.15 The Nucleic Acids 
4.16 Structure of DNA (The Double Helix)
4.17 Conformational Variations in DNA (Forms of DNA)
4.18 Denaturation and Renaturation of DNA
4.19 Replication of DNA 
4.20 Ribonucleic Acid (RNA)
4.21 Principal Kinds of RNAs and Their Structures
4.22 The Genetic Code
4.23 Transcription
4.24 Translation
4.25 Gene Therapy

5. Lipids-Oils and Fats
5.1 What are Lipids?
5.2 Classification of Lipids—Types of Lipids
5.3 Biological Functions of Lipids
5.4 Oils and Fats as Simple Lipids
5.5 Fatty Acids in Fats and Oils
5.6 Fatty Acid Composition in Some Fats and Oils
5.7 What are Omega-3 and Omega-6 Fatty Acids?
5.8 Biological Role of Fatty Acids
5.9 Trans Fats and their Effect
5.10 Extraction of Oils and Fats
5.11 Refining of Oils and Fats
5.12 Hydrogenation
5.13 Identification of Fats and Oils
5.14 Flavour Changes in Oils and Fats 
5.15 Cholesterol 
5.16 Importance of Triglycerides
5.17 Lipid Membranes 
5.18 Liposomes

6. Terpenoids
6.1 Introduction–The Essential Oils
6.2 Occurrence in Nature
6.3 Isoprene Rule 
6.4 Classification of Terpenoids
6.5 Isolation From Natural Sources 
6.6 Citral 
6.7 Dipentene
6.8 Geraniol 
6.9 a-Terpineol 
6.10 Menthol 
6.11 a-Pinene 
6.12 Camphor 
6.13 Diterpenoids – Phytol 
6.14 Triterpenoids – Squalene 
6.15 Tetraterpenoids–Carotenoids 
6.16 b-Carotene
6.17 a-Carotene
6.18 Lycopene
6.19 g-carotene

7. Alkaloids 
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Occurrence in Nature
7.3 Extraction of Alkaloids From Plants
7.4 General Properties of Alkaloids
7.5 Hofmann’s Exhaustive Methylation 
7.6 Emde Modification 
7.7 Classification Of Alkaloids 
7.8 Importance and Physiological Action of Alkaloids 
7.9 Conine
7.10 Nicotine 
7.11 Hygrine 
7.12 Atropine 
7.13 Cocaine 
7.14 Quinine 
7.15 Morphine 
7.16 Medicinal Importance of Reserpine 

Index