Chemistry ninth edition

Front Cover......Page 1
Title Page......Page 2
Copyright......Page 3
Brief Contents\n......Page 6
Contents......Page 8
About the Authors......Page 18
To the Instructor......Page 20
To the Student......Page 32
1 The Foundations of Chemistry......Page 40
The Law of Conservation of Energy......Page 43
1-2 Chemistry—A Molecular View of Matter......Page 44
1-3 States of Matter......Page 48
1-4 Chemical and Physical Properties......Page 49
1-5 Chemical and Physical Changes......Page 51
1-6 Mixtures, Substances, Compounds, and Elements......Page 52
CHEMISTRY IN USE: The Development of Science......Page 54
1-7 Measurements in Chemistry......Page 58
Mass and Weight......Page 59
Volume......Page 60
Scientific Notation......Page 61
Significant Figures......Page 62
1-10 The Unit Factor Method (Dimensional Analysis)......Page 66
1-12 Density and Specific Gravity......Page 70
1-13 Heat and Temperature......Page 73
1-14 Heat Transfer and the Measurement of Heat......Page 75
Exercises......Page 79
2 Chemical Formulas and Composition Stoichiometry......Page 87
2-1 Chemical Formulas......Page 88
2-2 Ions and Ionic Compounds......Page 92
2-3 Names and Formulas of Some Ionic Compounds......Page 93
2-5 The Mole......Page 95
CHEMISTRY IN USE: Avogadro’s Number......Page 99
2-6 Formula Weights, Molecular Weights, and Moles......Page 100
2-7 Percent Composition and Formulas of Compounds......Page 103
2-8 Derivation of Formulas from Elemental Composition......Page 104
CHEMISTRY IN USE: Names of the Elements......Page 105
2-9 Determination of Molecular Formulas......Page 110
2-10 Some Other Interpretations of Chemical Formulas......Page 112
2-11 Purity of Samples......Page 116
Key Terms......Page 117
Exercises......Page 118
3 Chemical Equations and Reaction Stoichiometry......Page 125
3-1 Chemical Equations......Page 126
3-2 Calculations Based on Chemical Equations......Page 131
3-3 The Limiting Reactant (Reagent) Concept......Page 135
3-4 Percent Yields from Chemical Reactions......Page 138
3-5 Sequential Reactions......Page 139
3-6 Concentrations of Solutions......Page 140
Percent by Mass......Page 141
Molarity......Page 142
3-7 Dilution of Solutions......Page 145
3-8 Using Solutions in Chemical Reactions......Page 146
Exercises......Page 149
4 The Structure of Atoms......Page 158
4-1 Fundamental Particles......Page 159
4-2 The Discovery of Electrons......Page 160
4-4 Rutherford and the Nuclear Atom......Page 162
4-5 Atomic Number......Page 164
4-6 Neutrons......Page 165
4-7 Mass Number and Isotopes......Page 166
4-8 Mass Spectrometry and Isotopic Abundance......Page 167
CHEMISTRY IN USE: Stable Isotope Ratio Analysis......Page 169
4-9 The Atomic Weight Scale and Atomic Weights......Page 170
4-10 The Periodic Table: Metals, Nonmetals, and Metalloids......Page 172
4-11 Electromagnetic Radiation......Page 177
4-12 The Photoelectric Effect......Page 181
4-13 Atomic Spectra and the Bohr Atom......Page 182
Enrichment: The Bohr Theory and the Balmer-Rydberg Equation......Page 185
4-14 The Wave Nature of the Electron......Page 187
4-15 The Quantum Mechanical Picture of the Atom......Page 189
4-16 Quantum Numbers......Page 190
4-17 Atomic Orbitals......Page 191
4-18 Electron Configurations......Page 196
4-19 The Periodic Table and Electron Configurations......Page 202
4-20 Paramagnetism and Diamagnetism......Page 205
Key Terms......Page 206
Exercises......Page 207
5 Chemical Periodicity......Page 216
5-1 More About the Periodic Table......Page 217
CHEMISTRY IN USE: The Periodic Table......Page 218
CHEMISTRY IN USE: The Discovery of Phosphorus......Page 219
5-2 Atomic Radii......Page 220
5-3 Ionization Energy......Page 223
5-4 Electron Affinity......Page 225
5-5 Ionic Radii......Page 227
5-6 Electronegativity......Page 229
5-7 Oxidation States......Page 231
Hydrogen......Page 233
Reactions of Hydrogen and Hydrides......Page 234
Reactions of Oxygen and the Oxides......Page 237
Combustion Reactions......Page 242
Combustion of Fossil Fuels and Air Pollution......Page 243
Exercises......Page 245
6 Some Types of Chemical Reactions......Page 250
1 Electrolytes and Extent of Ionization......Page 251
2 Strong and Weak Acids......Page 252
4 Strong Bases, Insoluble Bases, and Weak Bases......Page 254
5 Solubility Guidelines for Compounds in Aqueous Solution......Page 255
6-2 Reactions in Aqueous Solutions......Page 257
6-3 Naming Binary Compounds......Page 259
6-4 Naming Ternary Acids and Their Salts......Page 261
6-5 Oxidation-Reduction Reactions: Introduction......Page 264
1 Element + Element—Compound......Page 267
1 Compound + Element—Element......Page 268
6-8 Displacement Reactions......Page 269
2 [Active Metal + Nonoxidizing Acid]—[Hydrogen + Salt of Acid]......Page 270
CHEMISTRY IN USE: Troublesome Displacement Reactions......Page 272
3 Active Nonmetal + Salt of Less Active Nonmetald—Less Active Nonmetal + Salt of More Active Nonmetal......Page 273
6-9 Metathesis Reactions......Page 274
1 Acid–Base (Neutralization) Reactions: Formation of a Nonelectrolyte......Page 275
2 Precipitation Reactions......Page 277
6-10 Gas-Formation Reactions......Page 279
6-11 Summary of Reaction Types......Page 280
Key Terms......Page 282
Exercises......Page 283
7 Chemical Bonding......Page 289
7-1 Lewis Dot Formulas of Atoms......Page 290
Group 1A Metals (Alkali Metals) and Group 7A Nonmetals (Halogens)......Page 292
7-2 Formation of Ionic Compounds......Page 291
Group 1A Metals (Alkali Metals) and Group 6A Nonmetals......Page 294
Binary Ionic Compounds: A Summary......Page 295
Enrichment: Introduction to Energy Relationships in Ionic Bonding......Page 296
7-3 Formation of Covalent Bonds......Page 298
7-4 Bond Lengths and Bond Energies......Page 299
7-5 Lewis Formulas for Molecules and Polyatomic Ions......Page 300
7-6 Writing Lewis Formulas: The Octet Rule......Page 301
A Guide to Writing Lewis Formulas......Page 303
Rules for Assigning Formal Charges to Atoms of Group A Elements......Page 307
7-8 Writing Lewis Formulas: Limitations of the Octet Rule......Page 309
7-9 Resonance......Page 313
7-10 Polar and Nonpolar Covalent Bonds......Page 315
7-11 Dipole Moments......Page 316
7-12 The Continuous Range of Bonding Types......Page 317
Key Terms......Page 318
Exercises......Page 319
8 Molecular Structure and Covalent Bonding Theories......Page 326
8-1 A Preview of the Chapter......Page 327
8-2 Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion Theory......Page 329
8-3 Polar Molecules: The Influence of Molecular Geometry......Page 331
Molecular Shapes and Bonding......Page 333
B. VSEPR Theory......Page 334
C. Valence Bond Theory......Page 335
A. Experimental Facts and Lewis Formulas......Page 336
C. Valence Bond Theory......Page 337
A. Experimental Facts and Lewis Formulas......Page 338
B. VSEPR Theory......Page 339
C. Valence Bond Theory......Page 341
A. Experimental Facts and Lewis Formulas......Page 343
B. VSEPR Theory......Page 344
C. Valence Bond Theory......Page 346
A. Experimental Facts and Lewis Formulas......Page 347
C. Valence Bond Theory......Page 348
A. Experimental Facts and Lewis Formulas......Page 349
C. Valence Bond Theory......Page 350
D. Lone Pairs in Trigonal Bipyramidal Electronic Geometry......Page 351
C. Valence Bond Theory......Page 353
D. Lone Pairs in Octahedral Electronic Geometry......Page 354
8-13 Compounds Containing Double Bonds......Page 356
8-14 Compounds Containing Triple Bonds......Page 358
8-15 A Summary of Electronic and Molecular Geometries......Page 359
Exercises......Page 361
9 Molecular Orbitals in Chemical Bonding......Page 368
9-1 Molecular Orbitals......Page 369
9-2 Molecular Orbital Energy Level Diagrams......Page 372
9-3 Bond Order and Bond Stability......Page 373
The Hydrogen Molecule, H2......Page 374
The Oxygen Molecule, O2......Page 375
Heteronuclear Diatomic Molecules of Second-Period Elements......Page 377
The Hydrogen Fluoride Molecule, HF......Page 378
Other Diatomic Species with Large D(EN) Values......Page 379
The Carbonate Ion, CO3 22......Page 380
The Benzene Molecule, C6H6......Page 381
Exercises......Page 382
10 Reactions in Aqueous Solutions I: Acids, Bases, and Salts......Page 386
10-2 The Arrhenius Theory......Page 388
10-4 The Brønsted–Lowry Theory......Page 389
10-5 The Autoionization of Water......Page 392
10-6 Amphoterism......Page 393
Binary Acids......Page 394
Ternary Acids......Page 396
10-8 Acid–Base Reactions in Aqueous Solutions......Page 398
CHEMISTRY IN USE: Everyday Salts of Ternary Acids......Page 399
10-9 Acidic Salts and Basic Salts......Page 400
10-10 The Lewis Theory......Page 402
10-11 The Preparation of Acids......Page 404
Exercises......Page 406
11 Reactions in Aqueous Solutions II: Calculations......Page 413
11-1 Calculations Involving Molarity......Page 414
11-2 Titrations......Page 418
11-3 Calculations for Acid–Base Titrations......Page 420
Oxidation–Reduction Reactions......Page 424
11-4 Balancing Redox Equations......Page 425
11-5 Adding H(sup[+]) , OH(sup[-]), or H(sub[2])O to Balance Oxygen or Hydrogen......Page 426
11-6 Calculations for Redox Titrations......Page 428
Exercises......Page 431
12 Gases and the Kinetic–Molecular Theory......Page 439
12-1 Comparison of Solids, Liquids, and Gases......Page 440
12-2 Composition of the Atmosphere and Some Common Properties of Gases......Page 441
12-3 Pressure......Page 442
CHEMISTRY IN USE: The Greenhouse Effect and Climate Change......Page 443
12-4 Boyle\'s Law: The Volume–Pressure Relationship......Page 445
12-5 Charles\'s Law: The Volume–Temperature Relationship; The Absolute Temperature Scale......Page 448
12-6 Standard Temperature and Pressure......Page 450
12-7 The Combined Gas Law Equation......Page 451
12-8 Avogadro\'s Law and the Standard Molar Volume......Page 452
12-9 Summary of Gas Laws: The Ideal Gas Equation......Page 453
12-10 Determination of Molecular Weights and Molecular Formulas of Gaseous Substances......Page 457
12-11 Dalton\'s Law of Partial Pressures......Page 459
12-12 Mass–Volume Relationships in Reactions Involving Gases......Page 465
12-13 The Kinetic–Molecular Theory......Page 467
Dalton’s Law......Page 469
Enrichment: Kinetic-Molecular Theory, the Ideal Gas Equation, and Molecular Speeds......Page 470
12-14 Diffusion and Effusion of Gases......Page 472
12-15 Deviations from Ideal Gas Behavior......Page 474
Key Terms......Page 477
Exercises......Page 478
13 Liquids and Solids......Page 487
13-1 Kinetic–Molecular Description of Liquids and Solids......Page 488
13-2 Intermolecular Attractions and Phase Changes......Page 489
Ion–Ion Interactions......Page 490
Dipole–Dipole Interactions......Page 491
Hydrogen Bonding......Page 492
Dispersion Forces......Page 493
13-3 Viscosity......Page 496
13-4 Surface Tension......Page 497
13-5 Capillary Action......Page 498
13-6 Evaporation......Page 499
13-7 Vapor Pressure......Page 500
13-9 Heat Transfer Involving Liquids......Page 502
Enrichment: The Clausius-Clapeyron Equation......Page 505
13-10 Melting Point......Page 506
13-11 Heat Transfer Involving Solids......Page 507
13-13 Phase Diagrams (P versus T)......Page 509
13-14 Amorphous Solids and Crystalline Solids......Page 512
Enrichment: X-Ray Diffraction......Page 513
13-15 Structures of Crystals......Page 515
Metallic Solids......Page 518
Ionic Solids......Page 523
Covalent Solids......Page 525
13-17 Band Theory of Metals......Page 526
CHEMISTRY IN USE: Semiconductors......Page 529
Key Terms......Page 531
Exercises......Page 533
14 Solutions......Page 541
14-1 Spontaneity of the Dissolution Process......Page 542
14-2 Dissolution of Solids in Liquids......Page 544
14-3 Dissolution of Liquids in Liquids (Miscibility)......Page 547
14-4 Dissolution of Gases in Liquids......Page 548
14-5 Rates of Dissolution and Saturation......Page 549
14-6 Effect of Temperature on Solubility......Page 550
14-7 Effect of Pressure on Solubility......Page 552
Molality......Page 553
Mole Fraction......Page 554
14-9 Lowering of Vapor Pressure and Raoult\'s Law......Page 555
14-10 Fractional Distillation......Page 559
14-11 Boiling Point Elevation......Page 561
14-12 Freezing Point Depression......Page 562
14-13 Determination of Molecular Weight by Freezing Point Depression or Boiling Point Elevation......Page 564
14-14 Colligative Properties and Dissociation of Electrolytes......Page 565
14-15 Osmotic Pressure......Page 569
Colloids......Page 572
14-16 The Tyndall Effect......Page 573
14-17 The Adsorption Phenomenon......Page 574
14-18 Hydrophilic and Hydrophobic Colloids......Page 575
Hydrophobic Colloids......Page 576
CHEMISTRY IN USE: Why Does Red Wine Go with Red Meat?......Page 579
Key Terms......Page 580
Exercises......Page 581
15 Chemical Thermodynamics......Page 587
15-1 The First Law of Thermodynamics......Page 589
15-2 Some Thermodynamic Terms......Page 591
15-4 Calorimetry......Page 592
15-5 Thermochemical Equations......Page 594
15-6 Standard States and Standard Enthalpy Changes......Page 597
15-7 Standard Molar Enthalpies of Formation, ΔH(sup[0])(sub[f])......Page 598
15-8 Hess\'s Law......Page 600
15-9 Bond Energies......Page 604
15-10 Changes in Internal Energy, ΔE......Page 607
15-11 Relationship between ΔH and ΔE......Page 613
15-12 The Two Aspects of Spontaneity......Page 614
Dispersal of Energy......Page 615
Dispersal of Matter......Page 617
15-14 Entropy, S, and Entropy Change, ΔS......Page 619
15-15 The Second Law of Thermodynamics......Page 625
15-16 Free Energy Change, ΔG, and Spontaneity......Page 627
15-17 The Temperature Dependence of Spontaneity......Page 630
Key Terms......Page 634
Exercises......Page 635
16 Chemical Kinetics......Page 645
16-1 The Rate of a Reaction......Page 647
Factors That Affect Reaction Rates......Page 652
16-3 Concentrations of Reactants: The Rate-Law Expression......Page 653
An Alternative Method......Page 657
First-Order Reactions......Page 661
Second-Order Reactions......Page 663
Zero-Order Reaction......Page 665
Enrichment: Calculus Derivation of Integrated Rate Equations......Page 667
Enrichment: Using Integrated Rate Equations to Determine Reaction Order......Page 668
16-5 Collision Theory of Reaction Rates......Page 671
16-6 Transition State Theory......Page 672
16-7 Reaction Mechanisms and the Rate-Law Expression......Page 674
16-8 Temperature: The Arrhenius Equation......Page 677
16-9 Catalysts......Page 681
Homogeneous Catalysis......Page 682
Heterogeneous Catalysis......Page 684
Enzymes as Biological Catalysts......Page 688
CHEMISTRY IN USE: Ozone......Page 687
Key Terms......Page 690
Exercises......Page 691
17 Chemical Equilibrium......Page 699
17-1 Basic Concepts......Page 700
The SO2–O2–SO3 System......Page 701
17-2 The Equilibrium Constant......Page 702
17-3 Variation of K(sub[c]) with the Form of the Balanced Equation......Page 706
17-4 The Reaction Quotient......Page 707
17-5 Uses of the Equilibrium Constant, K(sub[c])......Page 708
17-6 Disturbing a System at Equilibrium: Predictions......Page 711
Changes in Concentration......Page 712
Changes in Volume and Pressure......Page 714
Changes in Temperature......Page 716
Addition of a Catalyst......Page 717
17-7 The Haber Process: A Commercial Application of Equilibrium......Page 718
17-8 Disturbing a System at Equilibrium: Calculations......Page 720
17-10 Relationship Between K(sub[p]) and K(sub[c])......Page 724
17-11 Heterogeneous Equilibria......Page 727
17-12 Relationship between ΔG(sup[0])(sub[rxn]) and the Equilibrium Constant......Page 728
17-13 Evaluation of Equilibrium Constants at Different Temperatures......Page 731
Exercises......Page 733
18 Ionic Equilibria I: Acids and Bases......Page 742
18-1 A Review of Strong Electrolytes......Page 743
18-2 The Autoionization of Water......Page 744
18-3 The pH and pOH Scales......Page 746
18-4 Ionization Constants for Weak Monoprotic Acids and Bases......Page 749
18-5 Polyprotic Acids......Page 762
18-6 Solvolysis......Page 765
18-8 Salts of Strong Bases and Weak Acids......Page 766
18-9 Salts of Weak Bases and Strong Acids......Page 769
18-10 Salts of Weak Bases and Weak Acids......Page 770
Salts of Weak Bases and Weak Acids for Which Kb = Ka......Page 771
Salts of Weak Bases and Weak Acids for Which Kb < Ka......Page 772
18-11 Salts That Contain Small, Highly Charged Cations......Page 773
Key Terms......Page 775
Exercises......Page 776
19 Ionic Equilibria II: Buffers and Titration Curves......Page 782
19-1 The Common Ion Effect and Buffer Solutions......Page 783
Weak Acids Plus Salts of Weak Acids......Page 784
Weak Bases Plus Salts of Weak Bases......Page 787
Solutions of a Weak Acid and a Salt of the Weak Acid......Page 789
Solutions of a Weak Base and a Salt of the Weak Base......Page 791
Buffer Preparation by Mixing of a Conjugate Acid–Base Pair......Page 792
Buffer Preparation by Partial Neutralization......Page 794
CHEMISTRY IN USE: Fun with Carbonates......Page 795
19-4 Acid–Base Indicators......Page 796
19-5 Strong Acid/Strong Base Titration Curves......Page 798
19-6 Weak Acid/Strong Base Titration Curves......Page 801
19-7 Weak Acid/Weak Base Titration Curves......Page 803
19-8 Summary of Acid–Base Calculations......Page 804
Exercises......Page 805
20 Ionic Equilibria III: The Solubility Product Principle......Page 810
20-1 Solubility Product Constants......Page 811
20-2 Determination of Solubility Product Constants......Page 813
20-3 Uses of Solubility Product Constants......Page 815
The Common Ion Effect in Solubility Calculations......Page 816
The Reaction Quotient in Precipitation Reactions......Page 818
20-4 Fractional Precipitation......Page 820
20-5 Simultaneous Equilibria Involving Slightly Soluble Compounds......Page 823
Converting an Ion to Another Species by a Redox Reaction......Page 826
Complex Ion Formation......Page 827
Key Terms......Page 828
Exercises......Page 829
21 Electrochemistry......Page 833
Electrolytic Cells......Page 835
21-3 The Electrolysis of Molten Sodium Chloride (The Downs Cell)......Page 836
21-4 The Electrolysis of Aqueous Sodium Chloride......Page 837
21-5 The Electrolysis of Aqueous Sodium Sulfate......Page 838
21-6 Counting Electrons: Coulometry and Faraday\'s Law of Electrolysis......Page 839
21-8 The Construction of Simple Voltaic Cells......Page 842
21-9 The Zinc–Copper Cell......Page 843
21-10 The Copper–Silver Cell......Page 845
21-11 The Standard Hydrogen Electrode......Page 847
21-12 The Zinc–SHE Cell......Page 848
21-13 The Copper–SHE Cell......Page 849
21-14 Standard Electrode Potentials......Page 850
21-15 Uses of Standard Electrode Potentials......Page 851
21-16 Standard Electrode Potentials for Other Half-Reactions......Page 853
21-17 Corrosion......Page 855
21-18 Corrosion Protection......Page 856
21-19 The Nernst Equation......Page 858
21-20 Using Electrochemical Cells to Determine Concentrations......Page 862
Enrichment: Concentration Cells......Page 864
21-21 The Relationship of ΔE(sup[0])(sub[cell]) to ΔG(sup[0]) and K......Page 865
21-22 Dry Cells......Page 867
Secondary Voltaic Cells......Page 868
21-23 The Lead Storage Battery......Page 869
21-25 The Hydrogen–Oxygen Fuel Cell......Page 870
Key Terms......Page 872
Exercises......Page 873
22 Metals I: Metallurgy......Page 880
Metallurgy......Page 881
22-2 Pretreatment of Ores......Page 882
22-3 Reduction to the Free Metals......Page 884
22-4 Refining of Metals......Page 885
22-5 Magnesium......Page 887
22-6 Aluminum......Page 888
22-7 Iron......Page 890
22-8 Copper......Page 892
Key Terms......Page 894
Exercises......Page 895
23 Metals II: Properties and Reactions......Page 898
23-1 Group 1A Metals: Properties and Occurrence......Page 899
23-2 Reactions of the Group 1A Metals......Page 900
CHEMISTRY IN USE: Trace Elements and Life......Page 901
Other Group 1A Metals......Page 904
23-5 Reactions of the Group 2A Metals......Page 905
Beryllium, Be......Page 906
Barium, Ba......Page 907
Aluminum, Al......Page 908
Other Group 3A Metals......Page 909
Periodic Trends......Page 910
23-8 General Properties......Page 911
23-9 Oxidation States......Page 912
Chromate–Dichromate Equilibrium......Page 913
Key Terms......Page 914
Exercises......Page 915
24 Some Nonmetals and Metalloids......Page 918
24-1 Occurrence, Uses, and Properties......Page 919
24-2 Xenon Compounds......Page 920
24-3 Properties......Page 921
Fluorine......Page 922
24-5 Reactions of the Free Halogens......Page 923
24-6 The Hydrogen Halides and Hydrohalic Acids......Page 924
24-7 The Oxoacids (Ternary Acids) of the Halogens......Page 926
Sulfur......Page 927
Tellurium......Page 928
Sulfur Dioxide, SO2......Page 929
Sulfur Trioxide, SO3......Page 930
Sulfuric Acid, H2SO4......Page 931
Nitrogen and Phosphorus......Page 932
24-13 Occurrence of Nitrogen......Page 933
24-14 Hydrogen Compounds of Nitrogen......Page 934
Nitrogen Oxide (+2 Oxidation State)......Page 935
Nitrogen Dioxide and Dinitrogen Tetroxide (+4 Oxidation State)......Page 936
Nitrous Acid (+3 Oxidation State)......Page 937
NaNO2 and NaNO3 as Food Additives......Page 938
24-17 Phosphorus......Page 939
24-18 Silicon and the Silicates\n......Page 940
Key Terms......Page 941
Exercises......Page 942
25 Coordination Compounds......Page 946
25-1 Coordination Compounds......Page 947
25-2 Ammine Complexes......Page 950
25-3 Important Terms......Page 951
25-5 Structures......Page 953
Ionization (Ion–Ion Exchange) Isomers......Page 955
Linkage Isomers......Page 956
Geometric (cis–trans) Isomers......Page 958
Optical Isomers......Page 960
Bonding in Coordination Compounds......Page 962
25-8 Crystal Field Theory......Page 963
25-9 Color and the Spectrochemical Series......Page 965
Key Terms......Page 967
Exercises......Page 968
26 Nuclear Chemistry......Page 973
26-2 Neutron–Proton Ratio and Nuclear Stability......Page 975
26-3 Nuclear Stability and Binding Energy......Page 976
26-4 Radioactive Decay......Page 979
26-5 Equations for Nuclear Reactions......Page 980
26-7 Neutron-Poor Nuclei (Below the Band of Stability)......Page 981
26-8 Nuclei with Atomic Number Greater Than 83......Page 982
Cloud Chambers......Page 983
Gas Ionization Counters......Page 984
26-10 Rates of Decay and Half-Life......Page 985
Radioactive Dating......Page 987
Medical Uses......Page 990
Industrial Uses......Page 991
26-13 Artificial Transmutations of Elements......Page 992
Bombardment with Positive Ions......Page 993
Neutron Bombardment......Page 994
26-14 Nuclear Fission......Page 995
Light Water Reactors......Page 997
Nuclear Power: Hazards and Benefits......Page 999
26-16 Nuclear Fusion......Page 1000
CHEMISTRY IN USE: Managing Nuclear Wastes......Page 1001
Key Terms......Page 1003
Exercises......Page 1004
27 Organic Chemistry I: Formulas, Names, and Properties......Page 1009
Alkanes......Page 1012
27-2 Naming Saturated Hydrocarbons......Page 1017
27-3 Alkenes......Page 1021
CHEMISTRY IN USE: Petroleum......Page 1022
27-4 Alkynes......Page 1026
27-5 Benzene......Page 1028
CHEMISTRY IN USE: Nanotechnology......Page 1029
27-6 Other Aromatic Hydrocarbons......Page 1030
Functional Groups......Page 1032
27-8 Organic Halides......Page 1033
27-9 Alcohols and Phenols......Page 1035
Nomenclature......Page 1036
Physical Properties......Page 1037
27-10 Ethers......Page 1038
27-11 Aldehydes and Ketones......Page 1039
27-12 Amines......Page 1041
Structure and Nomenclature......Page 1042
27-13 Carboxylic Acids......Page 1043
CHEMISTRY IN USE: The Chemistry of Artists’ Pigments......Page 1045
Acyl Halides (Acid Halides)......Page 1047
Esters......Page 1048
Amides......Page 1050
CHEMISTRY IN USE: Butter, Margarine, trans Fats......Page 1051
27-15 Summary of Functional Groups......Page 1052
27-16 Substitution Reactions......Page 1053
27-17 Addition Reactions......Page 1056
27-18 Elimination Reactions......Page 1058
Addition Polymerization......Page 1059
Condensation Polymerization......Page 1061
Key Terms......Page 1064
Exercises......Page 1065
28 Organic Chemistry II: Shapes, Selected Reactions, and Biopolymers......Page 1074
28-1 Constitutional Isomers......Page 1075
Geometric Isomers......Page 1076
Optical Isomers......Page 1077
CHEMISTRY IN USE: Developing More Environmentally Friendly Solvents......Page 1079
28-3 Conformations......Page 1080
Selected Reactions......Page 1081
Some Organic Acids......Page 1082
28-5 Oxidation–Reduction Reactions......Page 1084
CHEMISTRY IN USE: Chemical Communication......Page 1085
Oxidation of Alcohol......Page 1086
Oxidation of Alkylbenzenes......Page 1087
Combustion of Organic Compounds......Page 1088
28-6 Formation of Carboxylic Acid Derivatives......Page 1089
28-7 Hydrolysis of Esters......Page 1090
Biopolymers......Page 1091
28-8 Carbohydrates......Page 1092
28-9 Polypeptides and Proteins......Page 1096
CHEMISTRY IN USE: The Cells’ Drinking Straws......Page 1100
28-10 Nucleic Acids......Page 1101
Key Terms......Page 1103
Exercises......Page 1104
Appendix A: Some Mathematical Operations......Page 1108
Appendix B: Electronic Configurations of the Atoms of the Elements......Page 1112
Appendix C: Common Units, Equivalences, and Conversion Factors......Page 1115
Appendix D: Physical Constants......Page 1118
Appendix E: Some Physical Constants for a Few Common Substances......Page 1119
Appendix F: Ionization Constants for Weak Acids at 25°C......Page 1121
Appendix G: Ionization Constants for Weak Bases at 25°C......Page 1123
Appendix H: Solubility Product Constants for Some Inorganic Compounds at 25°C......Page 1124
Appendix I: Dissociation Constants for Some Complex Ions......Page 1126
Appendix J: Standard Reduction Potentials in Aqueous Solution at 25°C......Page 1127
Appendix K: Selected Thermodynamic Values at 298.15 K......Page 1130
Appendix L: Answers to Selected Even-Numbered Numerical Exercises......Page 1133
Index of Equations......Page 1140
Glossary/Index......Page 1145