Chemistry Heat Chemical Kinetics and Electrochemistry (Zambak)

Chapter 1
HEAT of REACTIONS
INTRODUCTION  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8
1. EXOTHERMIC REACTIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8
2. ENDOTHERMIC REACTIONS  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9
3. ENTHALPY CHANGE OF REACTIONS  . . . . . . .10
3.1. STANDARD HEAT OF FORMATION . . . . . .12
3.2. HEAT OF COMBUSTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .14
3.3. HEAT OF NEUTRALIZATION  . . . . . . . . . . .15
3.4. HEAT OF DISSOLUTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .16
4. CALORIMETERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .17
5. BOND BREAKAGE AND BOND ENERGY  . . . . .18
6. HESS’S LAW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .20
Reading : Alternative Energy Sources  . . . . . . . . .22
SUPPLEMENTARY QUESTIONS  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .24
MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .26
PUZZLE  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .29
Chapter 2
RATE of REACTIONS
INTRODUCTION  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .32
1. DEFINING AND MEASURING THE RATE OF 
REACTION  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .32
2. COLLISION THEORY  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .36
2.1. ACTIVATION ENERGY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .37
2.2. POTENTIAL ENERGY DIAGRAMS  . . . . . . .38
3. RATE EXPRESSION AND RATE CONSTANT  . .40
3.1. REACTION MECHANISM  . . . . . . . . . . . . . .41
3.2. ORDER OF REACTION  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .43
3.3. FACTORS AFFECTING THE RATE
OF REACTION  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .44
Nature of Reactants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .44
Concentration of Reactants  . . . . . . . . . . . . .45
The Temperature of the System  . . . . . . . . . .48
The Presence of a Catalyst . . . . . . . . . . . . . .49
Interacting Area  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .51
Reading : Catalysts in Daily Life  . . . . . . . . . . . . . .51
SUPPLEMENTARY QUESTIONS  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .53
MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .55
PUZZLE  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .58
Chapter 3
CHEMICAL EQUILIBRIUM
INTRODUCTION  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .60
1. PHYSICAL EQUILIBRIUM  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .60
2. CHEMICAL EQUILIBRIUM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .61
3. FACTORS CAUSING EQUILIBRIUM . . . . . . . . . .62
3.1. TENDENCY TOWARD MINIMUM ENERGY  .62
3.2. TENDENCY TOWARD MAXIMUM 
RANDOMNESS  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .62
4. THE EQUILIBRIUM CONSTANT EXPRESSION .64
4.1. The RELATION BETWEEN Kc AND Kp . . . . .65
4.2. VARIATION OF Kc EXPRESSION  . . . . . . . . .68
4.3. THE REACTION QUOTIENT  . . . . . . . . . . . . .70
5. FACTORS AFFECTING EQUILIBRIUM
(LE CHÂTELIER'S PRINCIPLE) . . . . . . . . . . . . . .73
5.1. EFFECT OF CONCENTRATION 
CHANGES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .73
5.2. VOLUME CHANGES OR EFFECT OF 
PRESSURE  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .76
5.3. EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE  . . . . . . . . . . .77
5.4. EFFECT OF CATALYST  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .78
Reading : Haber Process  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .79
SUPPLEMENTARY QUESTIONS  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .80
MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .82
PUZZLE  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .86
Chapter 4
SOLUBILITY EQUILIBRIUM
INTRODUCTION  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .88
1. SOLUBILITY PRODUCT  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .88
1.1. RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN SOLUBILITY 
AND SOLUBILITY PRODUCT  . . . . . . . . . . .89
1.2. ION PRODUCT AND PRECIPITATION . . . .93
2. FACTORS AFFECTING SOLUBILITY  . . . . . . . . .95
2.1. TYPE OF SOLVENTS  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .95
2.2. TEMPERATURE  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .95
2.3. THE COMMON-ION EFFECT  . . . . . . . . . . .95
3. SELECTIVE PRECIPITATION  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .97
4. QUALITATIVE ANALYSIS OF CATIONS  . . . . . . .98
Reading : Hard Water and Soft Water  . . . . . . . . .99
SUPPLEMENTARY QUESTIONS  . . . . . . . . . . . . . .100
MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS  . . . . . . . . . . . . . .101
PUZZLE  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .104
Chapter 5
ACID and BASE EQUILIBRIUM
INTRODUCTION  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .106
1. ACID-BASE THEORIES  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .106
1.1. The ARRHENIUS ACID-BASE THEORY  .106
1.2. The BRINSTED-LOWRY ACID-BASE 
THEORY  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .107
1.3. GENERAL PROPERTIES OF ACIDS  . . . .108
1.4. GENERAL PROPERTIES OF BASES . . . .108
2. IONIZATION of WATER  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .109
3. THE pH SCALE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .109
4. STRENGTH OF ACIDS AND BASES  . . . . . . . .113
4.1. ACID STRENGTH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .113
4.2. BASE STRENGTH  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .114
4.3. RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN Ka AND Kb . .117
5. NEUTRALIZATION  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .118
6. TITRATION  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .121
6.1. STRONG ACID-STRONG BASE 
TITRATION  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .122
7. HYDROLYSIS  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .125
8. BUFFER SOLUTIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .128
SUPPLEMENTARY QUESTIONS  . . . . . . . . . . . . . .130
MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS  . . . . . . . . . . . . . .132
PUZZLE  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .134
Chapter 6
ELECTROCHEMISTRY
INTRODUCTION  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .136
1. OXIDATION-REDUCTION REACTIONS  . . . . . .136
1.1. OXIDATION STATES  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .137
1.2. OXIDATION-REDUCTION HALF 
REACTIONS  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .139
1.3. BALANCING OXIDATION-REDUCTION
REACTIONS  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .140
Balancing Redox Reactions by the 
Half-Reaction Method  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .141
Balancing Redox Equations by the 
Change in Oxidation State Method  . . . . . .144
2. ELECTROCHEMICAL CELLS  . . . . . . . . . . . . . .146
2.1. STANDARD ELECTRODE POTENTIAL  . .148
Zn-SHE Cell . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .149
Spontaneity of Redox Reactions  . . . . . . . .152
2.2. EFFECT OF CONCENTRATION ON CELL 
VOLTAGES  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .154
The Nernst Equation  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .154
Determining Ion Concentrations from 
Cell Potentials  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .155
Relationship between εc°ell and
Equilibrium Constant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .156
2.3. CONCENTRATION CELLS  . . . . . . . . . . . .157
Reading : Batteries (Voltaic Cells)  . . . . . . . . . . .160
2.4. CORROSION  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .163
3. ELECTROLYSIS AND ELECTROLYTIC CELLS  .164
3.1. ELECTROLYSIS OF WATER   . . . . . . . . . .165
3.2. ELECTROLYSIS OF MOLTEN NaCl   . . . .166
3.3. PURIFICATION OF METALS AND 
ELECTROPLATING  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .166
Quantitative Aspects of Electrolysis  . . . . . .168
SUPPLEMENTARY QUESTIONS  . . . . . . . . . . . . . .170
MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS  . . . . . . . . . . . . . .173
PUZZLE  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .176
APPENDICES, GLOSSARY,
ANSWERS, INDEX
APPENDIX A  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .178
APPENDIX B  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .181
APPENDIX C  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .182
APPENDIX D  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .188
GLOSSARY  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .189
ANSWERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .194
INDEX  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .204
REFERENCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .208