Chemistry and Chemical Reactivity

Front Cover......Page 1
Title Page......Page 5
Copyright......Page 6
Contents......Page 9
Preface......Page 21
Sport Drinks......Page 32
1.1 Chemistry and Its Methods......Page 35
1.2 Classifying Matter......Page 39
1.3 Elements and Atoms......Page 44
1.4 Compounds and Molecules......Page 45
1.5 Physical Properties......Page 46
1.6 Physical and Chemical Changes......Page 49
STUDY QUESTIONS......Page 52
Copper......Page 56
1 Units of Measurement......Page 57
2 Making Measurements: Precision, Accuracy, Experimental Error, and Standard Deviation......Page 62
3 Mathematics of Chemistry......Page 64
STUDY QUESTIONS......Page 75
The Periodic Table, the Central Icon of Chemistry......Page 82
2.2 Atomic Number and Atomic Mass......Page 83
2.3 Isotopes......Page 85
2.4 Atomic Weight......Page 87
2.5 The Periodic Table......Page 90
2.6 Molecules, Compounds, and Formulas......Page 99
2.7 Ionic Compounds: Formulas, Names, and Properties......Page 102
2.8 Molecular Compounds: Formulas and Names......Page 112
2.9 Atoms, Molecules, and the Mole......Page 114
2.10 Describing Compound Formulas......Page 120
2.11 Hydrated Compounds......Page 128
CHAPTER GOALS REVISITED......Page 130
STUDY QUESTIONS......Page 132
Black Smokers......Page 144
3.1 Introduction to Chemical Equations......Page 145
3.2 Balancing Chemical Equations......Page 148
3.3 Introduction to Chemical Equilibrium......Page 150
3.4 Chemical Reactions in Aqueous Solution......Page 153
3.5 Ions and Molecules in Aqueous Solution......Page 154
3.6 Precipitation Reactions......Page 159
3.7 Acids and Bases......Page 163
3.8 Gas-Forming Reactions......Page 171
3.9 Oxidation-Reduction Reactions......Page 173
3.10 Classifying Reactions in Aqueous Solution......Page 181
CHAPTER GOALS REVISITED......Page 183
STUDY QUESTIONS......Page 184
The Chemistry of a Sparker......Page 190
4.1 Mass Relationships in Chemical Reactions: Stoichiometry......Page 191
4.2 Reactions in Which One Reactant Is Present in Limited Supply......Page 195
4.3 Percent Yield......Page 200
4.4 Chemical Equations and Chemical Analysis......Page 201
4.5 Measuring Concentrations of Compounds in Solution......Page 206
4.6 pH, a Concentration Scale for Acids and Bases......Page 211
4.7 Stoichiometry of Reactions in Aqueous Solution......Page 214
4.8 Spectrophotometry, Another Method of Analysis......Page 221
CHAPTER GOALS REVISITED......Page 226
STUDY QUESTIONS......Page 227
A Hot Air Balloon......Page 240
5.1 Energy: Some Basic Principles......Page 241
5.2 Specifi c Heat Capacity: Heating and Cooling......Page 247
5.3 Energy and Changes of State......Page 251
5.4 The First Law of Thermodynamics......Page 254
5.5 Enthalpy Changes for Chemical Reactions......Page 259
5.6 Calorimetry......Page 261
5.7 Enthalpy Calculations......Page 265
5.8 Product- or Reactant-Favored Reactions and Thermodynamics......Page 271
KEY EQUATIONS......Page 273
STUDY QUESTIONS......Page 274
Preparing for an Examination......Page 286
Examination Preparation Questions......Page 287
Answers and Solutions to Examination Preparation Questions......Page 293
Aurora Borealis......Page 300
6.1 Electromagnetic Radiation......Page 301
6.2 Quantization: Planck, Einstein, Energy, and Photons......Page 303
6.3 Atomic Line Spectra and Niels Bohr......Page 307
6.4 Particle–Wave Duality: Prelude to Quantum Mechanics......Page 314
6.5 The Modern View of Electronic Structure: Wave or Quantum Mechanics......Page 315
6.6 The Shapes of Atomic Orbitals......Page 319
6.7 One More Electron Property: Electron Spin......Page 323
CHAPTER GOALS REVISITED......Page 327
KEY EQUATIONS......Page 328
STUDY QUESTIONS......Page 329
The Chromium-Bearing Mineral Crocoite,......Page 336
7.1 The Pauli Exclusion Principle......Page 337
7.2 Atomic Subshell Energies and Electron Assignments......Page 338
7.3 Electron Confi gurations of Atoms......Page 341
7.4 Electron Confi gurations of Ions......Page 348
7.5 Atomic Properties and Periodic Trends......Page 351
7.6 Periodic Trends and Chemical Properties......Page 360
CHAPTER GOALS REVISITED......Page 363
STUDY QUESTIONS......Page 364
Greek Philosophers and Medieval Alchemists | 339......Page 371
Chemists of the 18th–19th Centuries | 340......Page 372
Atomic Structure—Remarkable Discoveries—1890s and Beyond......Page 374
STUDY QUESTIONS......Page 379
Chemical Bonding in DNA......Page 380
8.1 Chemical Bond Formation......Page 381
8.2 Covalent Bonding and Lewis Structures......Page 382
8.3 Atom Formal Charges in Covalent Molecules and Ions......Page 391
8.4 Resonance......Page 393
8.5 Exceptions to the Octet Rule......Page 396
8.6 Molecular Shapes......Page 399
8.7 Bond Polarity and Electronegativity......Page 407
8.8 Bond and Molecular Polarity......Page 412
8.9 Bond Properties: Order, Length, Energy......Page 418
8.10 DNA, Revisited......Page 424
CHAPTER GOALS REVISITED......Page 425
STUDY QUESTIONS......Page 427
The Chemistry of the Noble Gases......Page 436
9.1 Orbitals and Theories of Chemical Bonding......Page 437
9.2 Valence Bond Theory......Page 438
9.3 Molecular Orbital Theory......Page 454
KEY EQUATIONS......Page 465
STUDY QUESTIONS......Page 466
Camphor, an “Aromatic” Molecule......Page 474
10.1 Why Carbon?......Page 475
10.2 Hydrocarbons......Page 479
10.3 Alcohols, Ethers, and Amines......Page 493
10.4 Compounds with a Carbonyl Group......Page 500
10.5 Polymers......Page 510
STUDY QUESTIONS......Page 520
Preparing for an Examination......Page 528
Answers and Solutions to Examination Preparation Questions......Page 529
The Atmosphere and Altitude Sickness......Page 546
11.1 Gas Pressure......Page 548
11.2 Gas Laws: The Experimental Basis......Page 549
11.3 The Ideal Gas Law......Page 556
11.4 Gas Laws and Chemical Reactions......Page 559
11.5 Gas Mixtures and Partial Pressures......Page 562
11.6 The Kinetic-Molecular Theory of Gases......Page 564
11.7 Diffusion and Effusion......Page 570
11.8 Some Applications of the Gas Laws and Kinetic-Molecular Theory......Page 572
11.9 Nonideal Behavior: Real Gases......Page 574
KEY EQUATIONS......Page 576
STUDY QUESTIONS......Page 578
Antarctica Scene—Icebergs, Penguins, Snow, Ice, and Fog......Page 586
12.1 States of Matter and Intermolecular Forces......Page 587
12.2 Intermolecular Forces Involving Polar Molecules......Page 589
12.3 Intermolecular Forces Involving Nonpolar Molecules......Page 597
12.4 Properties of Liquids......Page 602
CHAPTER GOALS REVISITED......Page 612
STUDY QUESTIONS......Page 613
Graphite to Graphene......Page 620
13.1 Crystal Lattices and Unit Cells......Page 621
13.2 Structures and Formulas of Ionic Solids......Page 628
13.3 Bonding in Ionic Compounds: Lattice Energy......Page 631
13.4 The Solid State: Other Kinds of Solid Materials......Page 634
13.5 Phase Changes Involving Solids......Page 636
13.6 Phase Diagrams......Page 638
STUDY QUESTIONS......Page 642
Safe Flying......Page 648
14.1 Units of Concentration......Page 650
14.2 The Solution Process......Page 652
14.3 Factors Affecting Solubility: Pressure and Temperature......Page 658
14.4 Colligative Properties......Page 660
14.5 Colloids......Page 674
CHAPTER GOALS REVISITED......Page 678
KEY EQUATIONS......Page 679
STUDY QUESTIONS......Page 680
Preparing for an Examination......Page 688
Answers and Solutions to Examination Preparation  Questions......Page 689
Where Did the Indicator Go?......Page 702
15.1 Rates of Chemical Reactions......Page 703
15.2 Reaction Conditions and Rate......Page 708
15.3 Effect of Concentration on Reaction Rate......Page 709
15.4 Concentration–Time Relationships: Integrated Rate Laws......Page 715
15.5 A Microscopic View of Reaction Rates......Page 724
15.6 Reaction Mechanisms......Page 733
CHAPTER GOALS REVISITED......Page 742
KEY EQUATIONS......Page 743
STUDY QUESTIONS......Page 744
Dynamic and Reversible!......Page 756
16.1 Chemical Equilibrium: A Review......Page 757
16.2 The Equilibrium Constant and Reaction Quotient......Page 758
16.3 Determining an Equilibrium Constant......Page 766
16.4 Using Equilibrium Constants in Calculations......Page 769
16.5 More About Balanced Equations and Equilibrium Constants......Page 773
16.6 Disturbing a Chemical Equilibrium......Page 776
CHAPTER GOALS REVISITED......Page 782
KEY EQUATIONS......Page 783
STUDY QUESTIONS......Page 784
Aspirin Is Over 100 Years Old!......Page 792
17.1 Acids and Bases: A Review......Page 793
17.2 The Brønsted–Lowry Concept of Acids and Bases Extended Conjugate Acid–Base Pairs......Page 794
17.3 Water and the pH Scale......Page 797
17.4 Equilibrium Constants for Acids and Bases......Page 800
17.5 Predicting the Direction of Acid–Base Reactions......Page 808
17.6 Types of Acid–Base Reactions......Page 810
17.7 Calculations with Equilibrium Constants......Page 812
17.8 Polyprotic Acids and Bases......Page 819
17.9 The Lewis Concept of Acids and Bases......Page 821
17.10 Molecular Structure, Bonding, and Acid–Base Behavior......Page 825
CHAPTER GOALS REVISITED......Page 831
KEY EQUATIONS......Page 832
STUDY QUESTIONS......Page 833
Minerals and Gems—The Importance of Solubility......Page 842
18.1 The Common Ion Effect......Page 843
18.2 Controlling pH: Buffer Solutions......Page 846
18.3 Acid–Base Titrations......Page 853
18.4 Solubility of Salts......Page 864
18.5 Precipitation Reactions......Page 874
18.6 Equilibria Involving Complex Ions......Page 878
18.7 Solubility and Complex Ions......Page 879
CHAPTER GOALS REVISITED......Page 881
STUDY QUESTIONS......Page 882
Can Ethanol Contribute to Energy and Environmental Goals?......Page 892
19.1 Spontaneity and Energy Transfer as Heat......Page 894
19.2 Dispersal of Energy: Entropy......Page 895
19.3 Entropy: A Microscopic Understanding......Page 896
19.4 Entropy Measurement and Values......Page 900
19.5 Entropy Changes and Spontaneity......Page 903
19.6 Gibbs Free Energy......Page 908
19.7 Calculating and Using Free Energy......Page 911
CHAPTER GOALS REVISITED......Page 918
STUDY QUESTIONS......Page 919
Don’t Hold onto That Money!......Page 928
20.1 Oxidation–Reduction Reactions......Page 930
20.2 Simple Voltaic Cells......Page 937
20.3 Commercial Voltaic Cells......Page 941
20.4 Standard Electrochemical Potentials......Page 947
20.5 Electrochemical Cells Under Nonstandard Conditions......Page 957
20.6 Electrochemistry and Thermodynamics......Page 960
20.7 Electrolysis: Chemical Change Using Electrical Energy......Page 963
20.8 Counting Electrons......Page 969
CHAPTER GOALS REVISITED......Page 971
STUDY QUESTIONS......Page 972
The Purpose of Let’s Review......Page 980
Answers and Solutions to Examination Preparation Questions......Page 981
Carbon and Silicon......Page 994
21.1 Element Abundances......Page 995
21.2 The Periodic Table: A Guide to the Elements......Page 996
21.3 Hydrogen......Page 1000
21.4 The Alkali Metals, Group 1A......Page 1003
21.5 The Alkaline Earth Elements, Group 2A......Page 1007
21.6 Boron, Aluminum, and the Group 3A Elements......Page 1011
21.7 Silicon and the Group 4A Elements......Page 1018
21.8 Nitrogen, Phosphorus, and the Group 5A Elements......Page 1023
21.9 Oxygen, Sulfur, and the Group 6A Elements......Page 1033
21.10 The Halogens, Group 7A......Page 1037
CHAPTER GOALS REVISITED......Page 1042
STUDY QUESTIONS......Page 1043
Memory Metal......Page 1050
22.1 Properties of the Transition Elements......Page 1051
22.2 Metallurgy......Page 1057
22.3 Coordination Compounds......Page 1061
22.4 Structures of Coordination Compounds......Page 1068
22.5 Bonding in Coordination Compounds......Page 1072
22.6 Colors of Coordination Compounds......Page 1077
22.7 Organometallic Chemistry: The Chemistry of Low-Valent Metal–Organic Complexes......Page 1080
STUDY QUESTIONS......Page 1086
A Primordial Nuclear Reactor......Page 1092
23.1 Natural Radioactivity......Page 1093
23.2 Nuclear Reactions and Radioactive Decay......Page 1094
23.3 Stability of Atomic Nuclei......Page 1099
23.4 Rates of Nuclear Decay......Page 1104
23.5 Artifi cial Nuclear Reactions......Page 1109
23.6 Nuclear Fission......Page 1112
23.7 Nuclear Fusion......Page 1113
23.8 Radiation Health and Safety......Page 1114
23.9 Applications of Nuclear Chemistry......Page 1116
KEY EQUATIONS......Page 1122
STUDY QUESTIONS......Page 1123
Appendices......Page 1129
A: Using Logarithms and the Quadratic Equation......Page 1130
B: Some Important Physical Concepts......Page 1135
C: Abbreviations and Useful Conversion Factors......Page 1138
D: Physical Constants......Page 1142
E: A Brief Guide to Naming Organic Compounds......Page 1145
F: Values for the Ionization Energies and Electron Affi nities of the Elements......Page 1149
G: Vapor Pressure of Water at Various Temperatures......Page 1150
H: Ionization Constants for Weak Acids at 25°C......Page 1151
I: Ionization Constants for Weak Bases at 25°C......Page 1153
J: Solubility Product Constants for Some Inorganic Compounds at 25°C......Page 1154
K: Formation Constants for Some Complex Ions in Aqueous Solution......Page 1156
L: Selected Thermodynamic Values......Page 1157
M: Standard Reduction Potentials in Aqueous Solution at 25°C......Page 1164
N: Answers to Exercises......Page 1168
O: Answers to Selected Study Questions......Page 1190
P: Answers to Selected Interchapter Study Questions......Page 1246
Q: Answers to Chapter Opening Puzzler and Case Study Questions......Page 1250
Index/Glossary......Page 1263