Chemistry An Industry-Based Introduction with CD-ROM

l1303fm......Page 1
CHEMISTRY: An Industry-Based Introduction with CD-ROM......Page 2
Preface......Page 5
The Authors......Page 7
Acknowledgments......Page 9
Table of Contents......Page 11
Dedication......Page 12
Appendix: Answers to Homework Questions......Page 0
1.1 Introduction......Page 13
1.2 Matter: Properties and Changes......Page 15
1.3.1 Introduction......Page 17
1.3.2 Elements and Compounds......Page 18
1.3.3 Homogeneous and Heterogeneous Mixtures......Page 20
1.4.1 Structure and Composition of Elements......Page 21
1.4.2 Structure and Composition of Compounds......Page 22
1.5 A Quick Look Inside the Atom......Page 23
1.6.1 Protons and Electrons......Page 25
1.6.2 Neutrons and Isotopes......Page 26
1.6.4 Important Isotopes......Page 27
1.7 Subclassiflcations of Elements......Page 28
1.8 Formation of Ions......Page 30
1.9 Homework Exercises......Page 32
For Class Discussion and Reports......Page 35
2.2 Formulas of Ionic Compounds......Page 36
2.3 Naming Ionic Compounds......Page 39
2.4 Oxidation Numbers......Page 41
2.5 Naming Ionic Compounds of Metals that Have More Than One Oxidation Number......Page 44
2.6 Binary Covalent Compounds......Page 46
2.7 Identifying and Naming Acids......Page 48
2.9 Introduction to Chemical Equations......Page 49
2.10.2 The Law of Conservation of Mass......Page 51
2.10.3 The Process of Balancing Equations......Page 52
2.11 Optional Symbols......Page 55
2.12 Homework Exercises......Page 58
For Class Discussion and Reports......Page 60
3.1 Introduction......Page 62
3.2 History of Theories and Experiments......Page 63
3.3.1 What is Energy?......Page 66
3.3.2 What is Light?......Page 67
3.4.1 Introduction......Page 70
3.4.2 The Bohr Model and Light......Page 72
3.5 The Schrodinger Model......Page 73
3.6 Shapes, Orientations, and Relative Sizes and Energies of Orbitals......Page 76
3.7 Orbital Diagrams......Page 78
3.8 Electron Configuration......Page 80
3.9 Atomic Spectra Revisited......Page 83
3.10.1 Atomic Spectroscopy......Page 84
3.10.2 Molecular Spectroscopy......Page 85
3.11 Homework Exercises......Page 87
For Class Discussion and Reports......Page 89
4.1 Introduction......Page 90
4.2 Relationship to Electron Configuration......Page 91
4.3 Mendeleev and Meyer......Page 94
4.4.1 Alkali Metals......Page 95
4.4.4 Hydrogen and Helium......Page 96
4.4.5 Carbon, Nitrogen, Oxygen, Phosphorus, and Sulfur......Page 97
4.4.7 Selected First-Row Transition Elements: Chromium, Manganese, Iron, Cobalt, Nickel, Copper, and Zinc......Page 98
4.5.1 Atomic Size......Page 100
4.5.2 Ionization Energy and Electron Affinity......Page 102
4.6 Variability of Oxidation Number......Page 103
4.7.1 Additional Polyatomic Ions and Oxyacids of Nitrogen, Phosphorus, and Sulfur......Page 104
4.7.2 Polyatomic Ions and Oxyacids of the Halogens......Page 105
4.7.3 Partially Neutralized Salts of the Oxyacids of Carbon, Sulfur, and Phosphorus......Page 106
4.7.4 Other Polyatomic Ions......Page 107
4.8 Other Nomenclature Schemes......Page 108
4.9 Homework Exercises......Page 110
For Class Discussion and Reports......Page 112
5.1 Introduction......Page 114
5.2 Outermost Electrons......Page 115
5.3 Simple Ionic Compounds......Page 116
5.4 Simple Covalent Compounds—Slot Filling......Page 117
5.5 More Complicated Covalent Compounds......Page 118
5.6 Coordinate Covalent Bonds......Page 122
5.7 More Complicated Ionic Compounds......Page 124
5.8 Structure of Ionic Compounds......Page 125
5.9.1 Electronegativity and Bond Polarity......Page 126
5.9.2 Polarity of Molecules......Page 128
5.9.3 Water and the Hydrogen Bond......Page 129
5.9.4 Hydrates......Page 130
5.10 Valence Shell Electron-Pair Repulsion Theory......Page 131
5.11 Molecular Orbitals......Page 133
5.12 Homework Exercises......Page 135
For Class Discussion and Reports......Page 138
6.1 Introduction......Page 139
6.2 The Chemistry of Carbon and its Compounds......Page 141
6.4 Geometry Around Bonded Carbon Atoms......Page 142
6.5 Physical Properties......Page 143
6.6 Hydrocarbons......Page 144
6.6.1 Alkanes......Page 145
6.6.2 Alkenes......Page 147
6.6.4 Ring Structures......Page 149
6.7.1 Alcohols......Page 152
6.7.2 Ethers......Page 153
6.7.3 Aldehydes......Page 154
6.7.5 Carboxylic Acids......Page 155
6.7.6 Esters......Page 156
6.8 Summaries of Hydrocarbon and Oxygen Classifications......Page 157
6.9 Alternate Structure-Drawing Methods......Page 158
6.10.1 Amines......Page 159
6.11.2 Isocyanates......Page 160
6.13.1 Addition Polymers......Page 161
6.13.2 Condensation Polymers......Page 162
6.14.2 %Transmittance......Page 164
6.14.4 Infrared Spectrum......Page 165
6.15 Homework Exercises......Page 169
For Class Discussion and Reports......Page 174
7.1 Introduction......Page 175
7.2 Reading a Measuring Device......Page 176
7.3 Significant Figures......Page 178
7.3.1 Rounding......Page 179
7.3.2 Scientific Notation......Page 180
7.4 Dimensional Analysis......Page 181
7.5.2 Mass (Weight)......Page 184
7.5.3 Volume......Page 186
7.5.4 Examples of Conversion Problems......Page 187
7.6 Density and Specific Gravity......Page 189
7.6.1 Density......Page 190
7.6.2 Measuring the Density of Solids Having Regular Dimensions......Page 191
7.6.5 Use of Density as a Conversion Factor......Page 192
7.6.7 Specific Gravity......Page 194
7.7.2 Temperature Scales......Page 196
7.8 Viscosity......Page 199
7.9 Homework Exercises......Page 202
For Class Discussion and Reports......Page 205
8.1 Introduction......Page 207
8.2 Atomic Weight Revisited......Page 208
8.3 Molecular Weight and Formula Weight......Page 209
8.4.1 Atomic and Formula Weight—The Number of Grams per Mole of an Element or a Compound......Page 210
8.4.2 Avogadro’s Number—The Number of Particles per Mole......Page 212
8.5.1 Percent Composition from Laboratory Data......Page 213
8.5.2 Percent Composition from Formulas and Atomic and Formula Weights......Page 215
8.6.1 Empirical Formulas from Percent Composition......Page 217
8.6.2 Empirical Formulas from Laboratory Data......Page 218
8.6.3 Empirical Formulas vs. Molecular Formulas......Page 219
8.8 Calculations Based on Equations......Page 221
8.8.1 Mole-to-Mole Conversions......Page 222
8.8.2 Mole-to-Gram and Gram-to-Mole Conversions......Page 223
8.8.3 Gram-to-Gram Conversions......Page 224
8.9 Limiting Reactant......Page 225
8.10 Theoretical Yield, Actual Yield, and Percent Yield......Page 226
8.11 Stoichiometry with Molar Solutions......Page 228
8.12 Homework Exercises......Page 230
For Class Discussion and Reports......Page 233
9.1 Introduction......Page 234
9.2 Properties of Gases......Page 235
9.3 The Kinetic-Molecular Theory of Gases......Page 238
9.4 Gas Pressure......Page 239
9.5 Boyle’s Law......Page 242
9.6 Charles’ Law......Page 244
9.8 Standard Temperature and Pressure......Page 247
9.10 The Ideal Gas Law......Page 248
9.11 Density and Formula Weight of a Gas......Page 250
9.12 Avogadro’s Law......Page 251
9.13 Dalton’s Law......Page 253
9.14 Vapor Pressure......Page 254
9.15 Correction of the Volume of a Wet Gas to STP......Page 256
9.16 Stoichiometry of Reactions Involving Gases......Page 257
9.17 Homework Exercises......Page 258
For Class Discussion and Reports......Page 259
10.1 Introduction......Page 261
10.2 Terminology......Page 262
10.3.1 Particle Size......Page 265
10.4.1 Ionic Solutes in Water......Page 266
10.4.2 Molecular Solutes in Water......Page 267
10.4.3 Nonaqueous Solvents......Page 268
10.5 Electrolytes......Page 269
10.6.1 Percent......Page 271
10.6.3 Molality......Page 273
10.6.4 Parts per Million......Page 274
10.6.5 Normality......Page 275
10.7.1 Dilution......Page 276
10.7.3 Liquid Solute and Volume Percent......Page 280
10.7.4 Solid Solute and Weight-to-Volume Percent......Page 281
10.7.5 Solid Solute and Molarity......Page 283
10.7.6 Solid Solute and Molality......Page 284
10.7.7 Solid Solute and ppm......Page 285
10.7.9 Summary of Calculations......Page 287
10.8 Homework Exercises......Page 289
For Class Discussion and Reports......Page 293
11.1 Introduction......Page 294
11.2 Chemical Equilibrium......Page 296
11.3 Important Examples of Chemical Equilibrium......Page 297
11.4 The Equilibrium Constant......Page 298
11.5 The Magnitude of the Equilibrium Constant......Page 300
11.7 Effect of Concentration Change......Page 301
11.8 Effect of Temperature Change......Page 302
11.9 Effect of Pressure Change......Page 304
11.11 Equilibrium Calculations......Page 305
11.11.1 How Much Exists in Solution?......Page 306
11.11.2 Modifying the Amount that Dissolves......Page 308
11.11.3 Calculations Involving Ka and Kb......Page 310
11.12 Homework Exercises......Page 313
For Class Discussion and Reports......Page 316
12.2 Formulas and Strengths of Acids and Bases......Page 317
12.3.1 General Properties......Page 321
12.3.2 Properties of Some Specific Acids and Bases......Page 322
12.4.2 The Bronsted-Lowry Theory......Page 324
12.6.1 Neutralization......Page 326
12.6.3 Reaction of Metal and Nonmetal Oxides with Water......Page 328
12.7.1 Water Ionization and the Ion Product Constant......Page 329
12.7.3 Logarithms......Page 330
12.7.4 Significant Figures Rule......Page 335
12.7.6 Relationship between pH and pOH......Page 336
12.7.7 Calculations Summary......Page 337
12.8 Measurement of pH......Page 338
12.9 Homework Exercises......Page 340
For Class Discussion and Reports......Page 342
13.1 Introduction......Page 343
13.2 What is Energy?......Page 344
13.2.1 Kinetic and Potential Energy......Page 345
13.3.2 Light—Frequency, Wavelength, and Energy......Page 348
13.3.3 Nuclear Processes Give Off Energy......Page 351
13.3.4 Chemical Reactions Involve Energy Exchange......Page 352
13.3.5 Where Does the Energy Go?......Page 356
13.4 Enthalpies of Formation......Page 357
13.5.1 The Importance of Probability......Page 359
13.5.2 The Entropy of the Universe......Page 360
13.5.3 Measuring Entropy Change of the System in a Reaction......Page 361
13.5.4 Introducing Free Energy......Page 362
13.5.6 Free Energy of Formation Values......Page 364
13.6 Where Have We Been and Where Are We Going?......Page 365
13.7 Homework Exercises......Page 366
For Class Discussion and Reports......Page 368
14.1 Introduction......Page 369
14.2.1 Calculating the Rate......Page 370
14.2.2 Factors That Influence the Rate of a Reaction......Page 373
14.2.3 How Does the Rate Change with Time?......Page 376
14.2.4 The Differential Rate Equation......Page 377
14.2.5 Determining k for a First-Order Reaction: The Integrated First-Order Rate Equation......Page 378
14.2.6 The Integrated Second-Order Equation......Page 380
14.3.1 Concentration at Any Time......Page 383
14.3.2 The Half-Life of a First-Order Reaction......Page 384
14.4.1 The Rate-Determining Step......Page 388
14.4.2 The Activation Energy......Page 389
14.5 Where Have We Been?......Page 391
14.6 Homework Exercises......Page 393
For Class Discussion and Reports......Page 397
15.2.1 Review of the Nucleus......Page 398
15.2.2 Nuclear Decay Processes......Page 400
15.2.3 Decay Series......Page 404
15.3 Rates of Nuclear Decay......Page 405
15.4 Review of the Energy Changes......Page 406
15.5.1 Conventional Nuclear Reactors......Page 409
15.5.2 Breeder Reactors......Page 410
15.1 Homework Exercises......Page 411
For Class Discussion and Reports......Page 414
16.2 What Is an Electrochemical Reaction?......Page 415
16.3 Half-Reactions......Page 418
16.4 Balancing Electrochemical Reactions......Page 419
16.5 Standard Reduction Potentials......Page 426
16.6 Electrochemical Cells......Page 428
16.7 Measuring Standard Reduction Potentials......Page 431
16.8 Cell Potentials under Nonstandard Reaction Conditions......Page 434
16.9 Relationship between Cell Potential and Free Energy......Page 437
16.10 Electrolytic Cells......Page 438
16.11 Homework Exercises......Page 440
For Class Discussion and Reports......Page 441
17.2.1 Amino Acids......Page 442
17.2.2 Protein and Peptide Structures......Page 446
17.3.1 Simple Carbohydrates......Page 452
17.3.2 Disaccharides and Polysaccharides......Page 454
17.4.1 Nucleotides......Page 457
17.4.2 DNA and the Genetic Code......Page 460
17.4.3 Messenger RNA and Transfer RNA......Page 461
17.5.1 Fats and Oils......Page 464
17.5.2 Phospholipids and Waxes......Page 465
17.5.3 Steroids......Page 467
17.6 Homework Exercises......Page 468
For Class Discussion and Reports......Page 472