Chemistry

Cover
......Page 1
Title Page
......Page 7
Copyright
......Page 8
Brief Contents......Page 10
Contents......Page 12
About the Authors......Page 21
For the Instructor......Page 22
For the Student......Page 34
Ch 1: The Foundations of Chemistry......Page 41
Objectives......Page 42
1-1: Matter and Energy......Page 44
1-2: Chemistry - A Molecular View of Matter......Page 45
1-3: States of Matter......Page 49
1-4: Chemical and Physical Properties......Page 50
1-5: Chemical and Physical Changes......Page 52
1-6: Mixtures, Substances, Compounds, and Elements......Page 53
1-7: Measurements in Chemistry......Page 59
1-8: Units of Measurement......Page 60
1-9: The Unit Factor Method (Dimensional Analysis)......Page 62
1-11: Density and Specific Gravity......Page 66
1-12: Heat and Temperature......Page 69
1-13: Heat Transfer and the Measurement of Heat......Page 71
Key Terms......Page 75
Exercises......Page 76
Ch 2: Chemical Formulas and Composition Stoichiometry......Page 83
2-1: Chemical Formulas......Page 84
2-2: Ions and Ionic Compounds......Page 88
2-3: Names and Formulas of Some Ionic Compounds......Page 89
2-5: The Mole......Page 91
2-6: Formula Weights, Molecular Weights, and Moles......Page 96
2-7: Percent Composition and Formulas of Compounds......Page 100
2-8: Derivation of Formulas from Elemental Composition......Page 101
2-9: Determination of Molecular Formulas......Page 105
2-10: Some Other Interpretations of Chemical Formulas......Page 107
2-11: Purity of Samples......Page 111
Key Terms......Page 112
Exercises......Page 113
Ch 3: Chemical Equations and Reaction Stoichiometry......Page 121
3-1: Chemical Equations......Page 122
3-2: Calculations Based on Chemical Equations......Page 128
3-3: The Limiting Reactant (Reagent) Concept......Page 131
3-4: Percent Yields from Chemical Reactions......Page 135
3-5: Sequential Reactions......Page 136
3-6: Concentrations of Solutions......Page 137
3-7: Dilution of Solutions......Page 142
3-8: Using Solutions in Chemical Reactions......Page 143
Exercises......Page 146
Ch 4: The Structure of Atoms......Page 155
4-1: Fundamental Particles......Page 156
4-2: The Discovery of Electrons......Page 157
4-3: Canal Rays and Protons......Page 159
4-4: Rutherford and the Nuclear Atom......Page 160
4-5: Atomic Number......Page 161
4-6: Neutrons......Page 162
4-7: Mass Number and Isotopes......Page 163
4-8: Mass Spectrometry and Isotopic Abundance......Page 164
4-9: The Atomic Weight Scale and Atomic Weights......Page 166
4-10: The Periodic Table: Metals, Nonmetals, and Metalloids......Page 169
4-11: Electromagnetic Radiation......Page 174
4-13: Atomic Spectra and the Bohr Atom......Page 178
4-14: The Wave Nature of the Electron......Page 184
4-15: The Quantum Mechanical Picture of the Atom......Page 186
4-16: Quantum Numbers......Page 187
4-17: Atomic Orbitals......Page 188
4-18: Electron Configurations......Page 193
4-19: The Periodic Table and Electron Configurations......Page 199
4-20: Paramagnetism and Diamagnetism......Page 201
Key Terms......Page 202
Exercises......Page 204
Ch 5: Chemical Periodicity......Page 213
5-1: More about the Periodic Table......Page 214
5-2: Atomic Radii......Page 217
5-3: Ionization Energy......Page 219
5-4: Electron Affinity......Page 222
5-5: Ionic Radii......Page 224
5-6: Electronegativity......Page 226
5-7: Oxidation States......Page 227
5-8: Hydrogen and the Hydrides......Page 230
5-9: Oxygen and the Oxides......Page 233
Key Terms......Page 241
Exercises......Page 242
Ch 6: Some Types of Chemical Reactions......Page 247
6-1: Aqueous Solutions: An Introduction......Page 248
6-2: Reactions in Aqueous Solutions......Page 255
6-3: Naming Binary Compounds......Page 257
6-4: Naming Ternary Acids and Their Salts......Page 259
6-5: Oxidation-Reduction Reactions: Introduction......Page 262
6-6: Combination Reactions......Page 265
6-7: Decomposition Reactions......Page 266
6-8: Displacement Reactions......Page 267
6-9: Metathesis Reactions......Page 272
6-10: Gas-Formation Reactions......Page 277
6-11: Summary of Reaction Types......Page 278
Key Terms......Page 280
Exercises......Page 281
Ch 7: Chemical Bonding......Page 289
7-1: Lewis Dot Formulas of Atoms......Page 290
7-2: Formation of Ionic Compounds......Page 291
7-3: Formation of Covalent Bonds......Page 298
7-4: Bond Lengths and Bond Energies......Page 299
7-5: Lewis Formulas for Molecules and Polyatomic Ions......Page 300
7-6: Writing Lewis Formulas: The Octet Rule......Page 301
7-7: Formal Charges......Page 307
7-8: Writing Lewis Formulas: Limitations of the Octet Rule......Page 309
7-9: Resonance......Page 314
7-10: Polar and Nonpolar Covalent Bonds......Page 316
7-11: Dipole Moments......Page 318
7-12: The Continuous Range of Bonding Types......Page 319
Key Terms......Page 320
Exercises......Page 321
Ch 8: Molecular Structure and Covalent Bonding Theories......Page 327
8-1: A Preview of the Chapter......Page 328
8-2: Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion Theory......Page 330
8-3: Polar Molecules: The Influence of Molecular Geometry......Page 332
8-4: Valence Bond Theory......Page 333
8-5: Linear Electronic Geometry: AB2 Species (No Lone Pairs on A)......Page 335
8-6: Trigonal Planar Electronic Geometry: AB3 Species (No Lone Pairs on A)......Page 337
8-7: Tetrahedral Electronic Geometry: AB4 Species (No Lone Pairs on A)......Page 339
8-8: Tetrahedral Electronic Geometry: AB3U Species (One Lone Pair on A)......Page 344
8-9: Tetrahedral Electronic Geometry: AB2U2 Species (Two Lone Pairs on A)......Page 348
8-11: Trigonal Bipyramidal Electronic Geometry: AB5, AB4U, AB3U2, and AB2U3......Page 350
8-12: Octahedral Electronic Geometry: AB6, AB5U, AB4U2......Page 354
8-13: Lone Pairs on the Central Atom - A Summary......Page 355
8-14: Compounds Containing Double Bonds......Page 357
8-15: Compounds Containing Triple Bonds......Page 359
8-16: A Summary of Electronic and Molecular Geometries......Page 360
Key Terms......Page 362
Exercises......Page 363
Ch 9: Molecular Orbitals in Chemical Bonding......Page 369
9-1: Molecular Orbitals......Page 370
9-2: Molecular Orbital Energy Level Diagrams......Page 373
9-4: Homonuclear Diatomic Molecules......Page 375
9-5: Heteronuclear Diatomic Molecules......Page 379
9-6: Delocalization and the Shapes of Molecular Orbitals......Page 381
Key Terms......Page 383
Exercises......Page 384
Ch 10: Reactions in Aqueous Solutions I: Acids, Bases, and Salts......Page 387
Objectives......Page 388
10-2: The Arrhenius Theory......Page 389
10-4: The Bronsted-Lowry Theory......Page 390
10-5: The Autoionization of Water......Page 393
10-6: Amphoterism......Page 394
10-7: Strengths of Acids......Page 395
10-8: Acid-Base Reactions in Aqueous Solutions......Page 398
10-9: Acidic Salts and Basic Salts......Page 401
10-10: The Lewis Theory......Page 403
10-11: The Preparation of Acids......Page 405
Exercises......Page 407
Ch 11: Reactions in Aqueous Solutions II: Calculations......Page 415
11-1: Calculations Involving Molarity......Page 416
11-2: Titrations......Page 420
11-3: Calculations for Acid-Base Titrations......Page 422
11-4: Balancing Redox Equations......Page 427
11-5: Adding H+, OH-, or H2O to Balance Oxygen or Hydrogen......Page 428
11-6: Calculations for Redox Titrations......Page 430
Exercises......Page 433
Ch 12: Gases and the Kinetic-Molecular Theory......Page 441
12-1: Comparison of Solids, Liquids, and Gases......Page 442
12-3: Pressure......Page 443
12-4: Boyle's Law: The Volume-Pressure Relationship......Page 445
12-5: Charles's Law: The Volume-Temperature Relationship; The Absolute Temperature Scale......Page 450
12-7: The Combined Gas Law Equation......Page 452
12-8: Avogadro's Law and the Standard Molar Volume......Page 454
12-9: Summary of Gas Laws: The Ideal Gas Equation......Page 455
12-10: Determination of Molecular Weights and Molecular Formulas of Gaseous Substances......Page 459
12-11: Dalton's Law of Partial Pressures......Page 460
12-12: Mass-Volume Relationships in Reactions Involving Gases......Page 466
12-13: The Kinetic-Molecular Theory......Page 468
12-14: Diffusion and Effusion of Gases......Page 473
12-15: Deviations from Ideal Gas Behavior......Page 475
Key Terms......Page 478
Exercises......Page 479
Ch 13: Liquids and Solids......Page 489
13-1: Kinetic-Molecular Description of Liquids and Solids......Page 490
13-2: Intermolecular Attractions and Phase Changes......Page 491
13-3: Viscosity......Page 499
13-5: Capillary Action......Page 500
13-6: Evaporation......Page 501
13-7: Vapor Pressure......Page 502
13-8: Boiling Points and Distillation......Page 504
13-9: Heat Transfer Involving Liquids......Page 505
13-11: Heat Transfer Involving Solids......Page 509
13-13: Phase Diagrams (P versus T )......Page 512
13-14: Amorphous Solids and Crystalline Solids......Page 515
13-15: Structures of Crystals......Page 518
13-16: Bonding in Solids......Page 521
13-17: Band Theory of Metals......Page 529
Key Terms......Page 534
Exercises......Page 536
Ch 14: Solutions......Page 545
14-1: Spontaneity of the Dissolution Process......Page 546
14-2: Dissolution of Solids in Liquids......Page 548
14-3: Dissolution of Liquids in Liquids (Miscibility)......Page 550
14-4: Dissolution of Gases in Liquids......Page 552
14-5: Rates of Dissolution and Saturation......Page 553
14-6: Effect of Temperature on Solubility......Page 554
14-7: Effect of Pressure on Solubility......Page 555
14-8: Molality and Mole Fraction......Page 556
14-9: Lowering of Vapor Pressure and Raoult's Law......Page 558
14-10: Fractional Distillation......Page 562
14-11: Boiling Point Elevation......Page 563
14-12: Freezing Point Depression......Page 565
14-13: Determination of Molecular Weight by Freezing Point Depression or Boiling Point Elevation......Page 566
14-14: Colligative Properties and Dissociation of Electrolytes......Page 567
14-15: Osmotic Pressure......Page 571
14-17: The Adsorption Phenomenon......Page 575
14-18: Hydrophilic and Hydrophobic Colloids......Page 579
Key Terms......Page 582
Exercises......Page 583
Ch 15: Chemical Thermodynamics......Page 591
Objectives......Page 592
15-1: The First Law of Thermodynamics......Page 593
15-2: Some Thermodynamic Terms......Page 595
15-4: Calorimetry: Measurement of Heat Transfer......Page 596
15-5: Thermochemical Equations......Page 598
15-6: Standard States and Standard Enthalpy Changes......Page 601
15-7: Standard Molar Enthalpies of Formation, H 0 f......Page 602
15-8: Hess's Law......Page 604
15-9: Bond Energies......Page 608
15-10: Changes in Internal Energy, E......Page 611
15-11: Relationship between H and E......Page 617
15-12: The Two Aspects of Spontaneity......Page 619
15-13: Dispersal of Energy and Matter......Page 620
15-14: Entropy, S, and Entropy Change, S......Page 623
15-15: The Second Law of Thermodynamics......Page 629
15-16: Free Energy Change, G, and Spontaneity......Page 631
15-17: The Temperature Dependence of Spontaneity......Page 634
Key Terms......Page 638
Exercises......Page 639
Ch 16: Chemical Kinetics......Page 651
Objectives......Page 652
16-1: The Rate of a Reaction......Page 653
16-3: Concentrations of Reactants: The Rate-Law Expression......Page 659
16-4: Concentration versus Time: The Integrated Rate Equation......Page 667
16-6: Transition State Theory......Page 678
16-7: Reaction Mechanisms and the Rate-Law Expression......Page 680
16-8: Temperature: The Arrhenius Equation......Page 683
16-9: Catalysts......Page 687
Key Terms......Page 696
Exercises......Page 697
Ch 17: Chemical Equilibrium......Page 707
17-1: Basic Concepts......Page 708
17-2: The Equilibrium Constant......Page 710
17-3: Variation of Kc with the Form of the Balanced Equation......Page 713
17-4: The Reaction Quotient......Page 714
17-5: Uses of the Equilibrium Constant, Kc......Page 716
17-6: Disturbing a System at Equilibrium: Predictions......Page 719
17-7: The Haber Process: A Commercial Application of Equilibrium......Page 726
17-8: Disturbing a System at Equilibrium: Calculations......Page 728
17-9: Partial Pressures and the Equilibrium Constant......Page 731
17-10: Relationship between Kp and Kc......Page 732
17-11: Heterogeneous Equilibria......Page 734
17-12: Relationship between G 0 rxn and the Equilibrium Constant......Page 735
17-13: Evaluation of Equilibrium Constants at Different Temperatures......Page 739
Exercises......Page 740
Ch 18: Ionic Equilibria I: Acids and Bases......Page 749
18-1: A Review of Strong Electrolytes......Page 750
18-2: The Autoionization of Water......Page 751
18-3: The pH and pOH Scales......Page 753
18-4: Ionization Constants for Weak Monoprotic Acids and Bases......Page 757
18-5: Polyprotic Acids......Page 769
18-6: Solvolysis......Page 772
18-8: Salts of Strong Bases and Weak Acids......Page 773
18-9: Salts of Weak Bases and Strong Acids......Page 776
18-10: Salts of Weak Bases and Weak Acids......Page 777
18-11: Salts That Contain Small, Highly Charged Cations......Page 780
Exercises......Page 782
Ch 19: Ionic Equilibria II: Buffers and Titration Curves......Page 789
19-1: The Common Ion Effect and Buffer Solutions......Page 790
19-2: Buffering Action......Page 796
19-3: Preparation of Buffer Solutions......Page 799
19-4: Acid-Base Indicators......Page 803
19-5: Strong Acid/Strong Base Titration Curves......Page 805
19-6: Weak Acid/Strong Base Titration Curves......Page 808
19-7: Weak Acid/Weak Base Titration Curves......Page 809
19-8: Summary of Acid-Base Calculations......Page 811
Key Terms......Page 812
Exercises......Page 813
Ch 20: Ionic Equilibria III: The Solubility Product Principle......Page 819
20-1: Solubility Product Constants......Page 820
20-2: Determination of Solubility Product Constants......Page 822
20-3: Uses of Solubility Product Constants......Page 824
20-4: Fractional Precipitation; Qsp > Ksp......Page 830
20-5: Simultaneous Equilibria Involving Slightly Soluble Compounds......Page 832
20-6: Dissolving Precipitates; Qsp < Ksp......Page 835
Key Terms......Page 837
Exercises......Page 838
Ch 21: Electrochemistry......Page 843
Objectives......Page 844
21-2: Electrodes......Page 845
21-3: The Electrolysis of Molten Sodium Chloride (The Downs Cell)......Page 846
21-4: The Electrolysis of Aqueous Sodium Chloride......Page 847
21-6: Counting Electrons: Coulometry and Faraday's Law of Electrolysis......Page 848
21-7: Commercial Applications of Electrolytic Cells......Page 851
21-8: The Construction of Simple Voltaic Cells......Page 852
21-9: The Zinc-Copper Cell......Page 853
21-10: The Copper-Silver Cell......Page 855
21-12: The Zinc-SHE Cell......Page 857
21-13: The Copper-SHE Cell......Page 858
21-14: Standard Electrode Potentials......Page 859
21-15: Uses of Standard Electrode Potentials......Page 861
21-16: Standard Electrode Potentials for Other Half-Reactions......Page 863
21-17: Corrosion......Page 865
21-19: The Nernst Equation......Page 867
21-20: Using Electrochemical Cells to Determine Concentrations......Page 872
21-21: The Relationship of E 0 cell to G 0 and Keq......Page 875
21-22: Dry Cells......Page 877
21-23: The Lead Storage Battery......Page 878
21-25: The Hydrogen-Oxygen Fuel Cell......Page 880
Key Terms......Page 882
Exercises......Page 883
Ch 22: Nuclear Chemistry......Page 891
Objectives......Page 892
22-2: Neutron-Proton Ratio and Nuclear Stability......Page 893
22-3: Nuclear Stability and Binding Energy......Page 894
22-4: Radioactive Decay......Page 897
22-5: Equations for Nuclear Reactions......Page 898
22-7: Neutron-Poor Nuclei (Below the Band of Stability)......Page 899
22-8: Nuclei with Atomic Number Greater than 83......Page 900
22-9: Detection of Radiation......Page 901
22-10: Rates of Decay and Half-Life......Page 903
22-12: Uses of Radionuclides......Page 905
22-13: Artificial Transmutations of Elements......Page 911
22-14: Nuclear Fission......Page 914
22-15: Nuclear Fission Reactors......Page 916
22-16: Nuclear Fusion......Page 919
Key Terms......Page 922
Exercises......Page 923
Ch 23: Organic Chemistry I: Formulas, Names, and Properties......Page 927
Objectives......Page 928
23-1: Alkanes and Cycloalkanes......Page 930
23-2: Naming Saturated Hydrocarbons......Page 935
23-3: Alkenes......Page 939
23-4: Alkynes......Page 945
23-5: Benzene......Page 946
23-6: Other Aromatic Hydrocarbons......Page 947
23-7: Hydrocarbons: A Summary......Page 950
23-8: Organic Halides......Page 951
23-9: Alcohols and Phenols......Page 953
23-11: Aldehydes and Ketones......Page 958
23-12: Amines......Page 961
23-13: Carboxylic Acids......Page 962
23-14: Some Derivatives of Carboxylic Acids......Page 966
23-15: Summary of Functional Groups......Page 970
23-16: Substitution Reactions......Page 972
23-17: Addition Reactions......Page 975
23-18: Elimination Reactions......Page 977
23-19: Polymerization Reactions......Page 978
Key Terms......Page 983
Exercises......Page 984
Ch 24: Organic Chemistry II: Shapes, Selected Reactions, and Biopolymers......Page 993
24-1: Constitutional Isomers......Page 994
24-2: Stereoisomers......Page 995
24-3: Conformations......Page 999
24-4: Reactions of Bronsted-Lowry Acids and Bases......Page 1000
24-5: Oxidation-Reduction Reactions......Page 1003
24-6: Formation of Carboxylic Acid Derivatives......Page 1008
24-7: Hydrolysis of Esters......Page 1009
24-8: Carbohydrates......Page 1011
24-9: Polypeptides and Proteins......Page 1014
24-10: Nucleic Acids......Page 1018
Key Terms......Page 1022
Exercises......Page 1023
Ch 25: Coordination Compounds......Page 1029
25-1: Coordination Compounds......Page 1030
25-2: Ammine Complexes......Page 1033
25-3: Important Terms......Page 1034
25-4: Nomenclature......Page 1035
25-5: Structures......Page 1038
25-6: Structural (Constitutional) Isomers......Page 1039
25-7: Stereoisomers......Page 1040
25-8: Crystal Field Theory......Page 1046
25-9: Color and the Spectrochemical Series......Page 1048
Key Terms......Page 1050
Exercises......Page 1051
Ch 26: Metals I: Metallurgy......Page 1057
26-1: Occurrence of the Metals......Page 1058
26-2: Pretreatment of Ores......Page 1059
26-3: Reduction to the Free Metals......Page 1061
26-4: Refining of Metals......Page 1062
26-5: Magnesium......Page 1063
26-6: Aluminum......Page 1064
26-7: Iron......Page 1066
26-8: Copper......Page 1068
26-9: Gold......Page 1069
Exercises......Page 1070
Ch 27: Metals II: Properties and Reactions......Page 1075
27-1: Group 1A Metals: Properties and Occurrence......Page 1076
27-2: Reactions of the Group 1A Metals......Page 1077
27-3: Uses of Group 1A Metals and Their Compounds......Page 1081
27-5: Reactions of the Group 2A Metals......Page 1082
27-6: Uses of Group 2A Metals and Their Compounds......Page 1083
27-7: Group 3A: Periodic Trends......Page 1085
27-9: Oxidation States......Page 1089
27-10: Chromium Oxides, Oxyanions, and Hydroxides......Page 1090
Exercises......Page 1093
Ch 28: Some Nonmetals and Metalloids......Page 1097
28-1: Occurrence, Uses, and Properties......Page 1098
28-2: Xenon Compounds......Page 1099
28-3: Properties......Page 1100
28-4: Occurrence, Production, and Uses......Page 1101
28-5: Reactions of the Free Halogens......Page 1102
28-6: The Hydrogen Halides and Hydrohalic Acids......Page 1103
28-7: The Oxoacids (Ternary Acids) of the Halogens......Page 1104
28-8: Occurrence, Properties, and Uses......Page 1105
28-10: Hydrides of Group 6A Elements......Page 1107
28-11: Group 6A Oxides......Page 1108
28-12: Oxoacids of Sulfur......Page 1109
28-13: Occurrence of Nitrogen......Page 1111
28-14: Hydrogen Compounds of Nitrogen......Page 1112
28-15: Nitrogen Oxides......Page 1113
28-16: Some Oxoacids of Nitrogen and Their Salts......Page 1116
28-17: Phosphorus......Page 1117
28-18: Silicon and the Silicates......Page 1118
Exercises......Page 1120
A-1: Scientific Notation......Page 1125
A-2: Logarithms......Page 1127
A-3: Quadratic Equations......Page 1128
A-4: Significant Figures......Page 1129
Appendix B: Electronic Configurations of the Atoms of the Elements......Page 1133
C-1: Fundamental Units of the SI System......Page 1136
C-2: Derived SI Units......Page 1137
Appendix D: Physical Constants......Page 1139
Appendix E: Some Physical Constants for a Few Common Substances......Page 1140
Appendix F: Ionization Constants for Weak Acids at 25 Degree Celcius......Page 1142
Appendix G: Ionization Constants for Weak Bases at 25 Degree Celcius......Page 1144
Appendix H: Solubility Product Constants for Some Inorganic Compounds at 25 Degree Celcius......Page 1145
Appendix I: Dissociation Constants for Some Complex Ions......Page 1147
Appendix J: Standard Reduction Potentials in Aqueous Solution at 25 Degree Celcius......Page 1148
Appendix K: Selected Thermodynamic Values at 298.15 K......Page 1151
Appendix L: Answers to Selected Even-Numbered Numerical Exercises......Page 1154
Index of Equations......Page 1161
Glossary/Index......Page 1167