Chemistry, 7th Edition

Front Cover......Page 1
Chemistry, Seventh Edition......Page 2
ISBN 13: 9780618528448......Page 3
Contents......Page 4
To the Professor......Page 10
To the Student......Page 16
1 Chemical Foundations......Page 25
1.1 Chemistry: An Overview......Page 27
CHEMICAL IMPACT The Chemistry of Art......Page 29
1.2 The Scienti.c Method......Page 30
CHEMICAL IMPACT A Note-able Achievement......Page 32
1.3 Units of Measurement......Page 33
1.4 Uncertainty in Measurement......Page 35
1.5 Signi.cant Figures and Calculations......Page 38
1.6 Dimensional Analysis......Page 41
1.7 Temperature......Page 44
CHEMICAL IMPACT Faux Snow......Page 47
1.8 Density......Page 49
1.9 Classi.cation of Matter......Page 50
Key Terms......Page 54
Questions......Page 56
Exercises......Page 57
2 Atoms, Molecules, and Ions......Page 63
2.1 The Early History of Chemistry......Page 64
CHEMICAL IMPACT There’s Gold in Them There Plants!......Page 65
2.2 Fundamental Chemical Laws......Page 66
2.3 Dalton’s Atomic Theory......Page 68
2.4 Early Experiments to Characterize the Atom......Page 70
CHEMICAL IMPACT Berzelius, Selenium, and Silicon......Page 71
2.5 The Modern View of Atomic Structure: An Introduction......Page 74
CHEMICAL IMPACT Reading the History of Bogs......Page 76
2.6 Molecules and Ions......Page 77
2.7 An Introduction to the Periodic Table......Page 80
2.8 Naming Simple Compounds......Page 82
Key Terms......Page 92
Question and......Page 94
Exercises......Page 95
3 Stoichiometry......Page 101
3.1 Counting by Weighing......Page 102
3.2 Atomic Masses......Page 103
CHEMICAL IMPACT Buckyballs Teach Some History......Page 105
3.3 The Mole......Page 107
CHEMICAL IMPACT Elemental Analysis Catches\n\nElephant Poachers......Page 109
3.4 Molar Mass......Page 111
CHEMICAL IMPACT Measuring the Masses of Large Molecules, or Making Elephants Fly......Page 112
3.5 Percent Composition of Compounds......Page 114
3.6 Determining the Formula of a Compound......Page 116
3.7 Chemical Equations......Page 121
3.8 Balancing Chemical Equations......Page 123
3.9 Stoichiometric Calculations: Amounts of Reactants and Products......Page 127
CHEMICAL IMPACT High Mountains—Low Octane......Page 128
3.10 Calculations Involving a Limiting Reactant......Page 131
Key Terms......Page 138
Exercises......Page 142
4 Types of Chemical Reactions and Solution Stoichiometry......Page 151
4.1 Water, the Common Solvent......Page 152
4.2 The Nature of Aqueous Solutions: Strong and Weak Electrolytes......Page 154
CHEMICAL IMPACT Arrhenius: A Man with Solutions......Page 157
4.3 The Composition of Solutions......Page 158
CHEMICAL IMPACT Tiny Laboratories......Page 163
4.5 Precipitation Reactions......Page 165
4.6 Describing Reactions in Solution......Page 170
4.7 Stoichiometry of Precipitation Reactions......Page 172
4.8 Acid–Base Reactions......Page 174
4.9 Oxidation–Reduction Reactions......Page 179
CHEMICAL IMPACT Iron Zeroes in on Pollution......Page 181
CHEMICAL IMPACT Pearly Whites......Page 184
CHEMICAL IMPACT Aging: Does It Involve Oxidation?......Page 185
4.10 Balancing Oxidation–Reduction Equations......Page 187
Key Terms......Page 193
Exercises......Page 196
5 Gases......Page 203
5.1 Pressure......Page 204
5.2 The Gas Laws of Boyle, Charles, and Avogadro......Page 206
5.3 The Ideal Gas Law......Page 211
5.4 Gas Stoichiometry......Page 215
5.5 Dalton’s Law of Partial Pressures......Page 219
CHEMICAL IMPACT Separating Gases......Page 221
CHEMICAL IMPACT The Chemistry of Air Bags......Page 222
5.6 The Kinetic Molecular Theory of Gases......Page 224
5.7 Effusion and Diffusion......Page 231
5.8 Real Gases......Page 233
5.9 Characteristics of Several Real Gases......Page 235
5.10 Chemistry in the Atmosphere......Page 236
CHEMICAL IMPACT Acid Rain: A Growing Problem......Page 237
Key Terms......Page 240
Questions and......Page 243
Exercises......Page 244
6 Thermochemistry......Page 253
6.1 The Nature of Energy......Page 254
6.2 Enthalpy and Calorimetry......Page 260
CHEMICAL IMPACT Nature Has Hot Plants......Page 263
CHEMICAL IMPACT Firewalking: Magic or Science?......Page 266
6.3 Hess’s Law......Page 267
6.4 Standard Enthalpies of Formation......Page 271
6.5 Present Sources of Energy......Page 277
6.6 New Energy Sources......Page 281
CHEMICAL IMPACT Farming the Wind......Page 283
CHEMICAL IMPACT Veggie Gasoline?......Page 287
Key Terms......Page 289
Exercises......Page 291
7 Atomic Structure and Periodicity......Page 299
7.1 Electromagnetic Radiation......Page 300
7.2 The Nature of Matter......Page 302
CHEMICAL IMPACT Chemistry That Doesn’t Leave You in the Dark......Page 305
CHEMICAL IMPACT Thin Is In......Page 307
7.3 The Atomic Spectrum of Hydrogen......Page 309
7.4 The Bohr Model......Page 310
CHEMICAL IMPACT Fireworks......Page 313
7.5 The Quantum Mechanical Model of the Atom......Page 315
7.6 Quantum Numbers......Page 318
7.7 Orbital Shapes and Energies......Page 320
7.8 Electron Spin and the Pauli Principle......Page 321
7.9 Polyelectronic Atoms......Page 323
7.10 The History of the Periodic Table......Page 324
7.11 The Aufbau Principle and the Periodic Table......Page 327
7.12 Periodic Trends in Atomic Properties......Page 334
7.13 The Properties of a Group: The Alkali Metals......Page 339
CHEMICAL IMPACT Potassium—Too Much of a Good Thing Can Kill You......Page 342
Key Terms......Page 343
Exercises......Page 346
8 Bonding: General Concepts......Page 353
8.1 Types of Chemical Bonds......Page 355
CHEMICAL IMPACT No Lead Pencils......Page 357
8.2 Electronegativity......Page 358
8.3 Bond Polarity and Dipole Moments......Page 360
8.4 Ions: Electron Con.gurations and Sizes......Page 363
8.5 Energy Effects in Binary Ionic Compounds......Page 367
8.6 Partial Ionic Character of Covalent Bonds......Page 371
8.7 The Covalent Chemical Bond: A Model......Page 372
8.8 Covalent Bond Energies and Chemical Reactions......Page 375
8.9 The Localized Electron Bonding Model......Page 378
8.10 Lewis Structures......Page 379
8.11 Exceptions to the Octet Rule......Page 383
8.12 Resonance......Page 387
8.13 Molecular Structure: The VSEPR Model......Page 392
CHEMICAL IMPACT Chemical Structure and Communication: Semiochemicals......Page 403
Key Terms......Page 405
Exercises......Page 407
9 Covalent Bonding: Orbitals......Page 415
9.1 Hybridization and the Localized Electron Model......Page 416
9.2 The Molecular Orbital Model......Page 428
9.3 Bonding in Homonuclear Diatomic Molecules......Page 431
9.4 Bonding in Heteronuclear Diatomic Molecules......Page 437
9.5 Combining the Localized Electron and Molecular Orbital Models......Page 438
CHEMICAL IMPACT What’s Hot?......Page 439
Key Terms......Page 441
Exercises......Page 443
10 Liquids and Solids......Page 449
10.1 Intermolecular Forces......Page 451
10.2 The Liquid State......Page 454
10.3 An Introduction to Structures and Types of Solids......Page 455
CHEMICAL IMPACT Smart Fluids......Page 459
10.4 Structure and Bonding in Metals......Page 461
CHEMICAL IMPACT Seething Surfaces......Page 463
CHEMICAL IMPACT Closest Packing of M & Ms......Page 466
CHEMICAL IMPACT What Sank the Titanic?......Page 468
10.5 Carbon and Silicon: Network Atomic Solids......Page 469
CHEMICAL IMPACT Gol.ng with Glass......Page 474
CHEMICAL IMPACT Transistors and Printed Circuits......Page 477
10.6 Molecular Solids......Page 479
CHEMICAL IMPACT Explosive Sniffer......Page 480
10.7 Ionic Solids......Page 481
10.8 Vapor Pressure and Changes of State......Page 484
10.9 Phase Diagrams......Page 492
CHEMICAL IMPACT Making Diamonds at Low Pressures: Fooling Mother Nature......Page 495
Key Terms......Page 497
Exercises......Page 500
11 Properties of Solutions......Page 509
11.1 Solution Composition......Page 510
11.2 The Energies of Solution Formation......Page 513
11.3 Factors Affecting Solubility......Page 517
CHEMICAL IMPACT Ionic Liquids?......Page 519
11.4 The Vapor Pressures of Solutions......Page 522
CHEMICAL IMPACT Spray Power......Page 525
11.5 Boiling-Point Elevation and Freezing-Point Depression......Page 529
11.6 Osmotic Pressure......Page 533
11.7 Colligative Properties of Electrolyte Solutions......Page 537
11.8 Colloids......Page 539
Key Terms......Page 541
Questions and......Page 544
Exercises......Page 545
12 Chemical Kinetics......Page 551
12.1 Reaction Rates......Page 552
12.2 Rate Laws: An Introduction......Page 557
12.3 Determining the Form of the Rate Law......Page 559
12.4 The Integrated Rate Law......Page 563
12.5 Rate Laws: A Summary......Page 573
12.6 Reaction Mechanisms......Page 574
12.7 A Model for Chemical Kinetics......Page 577
12.8 Catalysis......Page 582
CHEMICAL IMPACT Automobiles: Air Puri.ers?......Page 585
CHEMICAL IMPACT Enzymes: Nature’s Catalysts......Page 587
Key Terms......Page 589
Exercises......Page 592
13 Chemical Equilibrium......Page 603
13.1 The Equilibrium Condition......Page 604
13.2 The Equilibrium Constant......Page 607
13.3 Equilibrium Expressions Involving Pressures......Page 611
13.4 Heterogeneous Equilibria......Page 613
13.5 Applications of the Equilibrium Constant......Page 616
13.6 Solving Equilibrium Problems......Page 625
13.7 Le Châtelier’s Principle......Page 629
Key Terms......Page 635
Exercises......Page 639
14 Acids and Bases......Page 647
14.1 The Nature of Acids and Bases......Page 648
14.2 Acid Strength......Page 651
14.3 The pH Scale......Page 656
CHEMICAL IMPACT Arnold Beckman, Man of Science......Page 657
14.4 Calculating the pH of Strong Acid Solutions......Page 659
14.5 Calculating the pH of Weak Acid Solutions......Page 660
CHEMICAL IMPACT Household Chemistry......Page 668
14.6 Bases......Page 669
CHEMICAL IMPACT Amines......Page 673
14.7 Polyprotic Acids......Page 675
14.8 Acid–Base Properties of Salts......Page 680
14.9 The Effect of Structure on Acid–Base Properties......Page 686
14.10 Acid–Base Properties of Oxides......Page 687
14.11 The Lewis Acid–Base Model......Page 688
14.12 Strategy for Solving Acid–Base Problems: A Summary......Page 691
Key Terms......Page 693
Exercises......Page 698
15 Applications of Aqueous Equilibria......Page 705
15.1 Solutions of Acids or Bases Containing a Common Ion......Page 706
15.2 Buffered Solutions......Page 709
15.3 Buffering Capacity......Page 718
15.4 Titrations and pH Curves......Page 721
15.5 Acid–Base Indicators......Page 736
15.6 Solubility Equilibria and the Solubility Product......Page 742
CHEMICAL IMPACT The Chemistry of Teeth......Page 745
15.7 Precipitation and Qualitative Analysis......Page 749
15.8 Equilibria Involving Complex Ions......Page 756
Key Terms......Page 761
Exercises......Page 765
16 Spontaneity, Entropy, and Free Energy......Page 773
16.1 Spontaneous Processes and Entropy......Page 774
16.2 Entropy and the Second Law of Thermodynamics......Page 780
16.3 The Effect of Temperature on Spontaneity......Page 781
16.4 Free Energy......Page 784
16.5 Entropy Changes in Chemical Reactions......Page 787
16.6 Free Energy and Chemical Reactions......Page 791
16.7 The Dependence of Free Energy on Pressure......Page 795
16.8 Free Energy and Equilibrium......Page 799
16.9 Free Energy and Work......Page 803
Key Terms......Page 805
Exercises......Page 808
17 Electrochemistry......Page 815
17.1 Galvanic Cells......Page 816
17.2 Standard Reduction Potentials......Page 819
17.3 Cell Potential, Electrical Work, and Free Energy......Page 825
17.4 Dependence of Cell Potential on Concentration......Page 828
17.5 Batteries......Page 833
CHEMICAL IMPACT Printed Batteries......Page 834
CHEMICAL IMPACT Thermophotovoltaics: Electricity from Heat......Page 835
CHEMICAL IMPACT Fuel Cells for Cars......Page 837
17.6 Corrosion......Page 838
CHEMICAL IMPACT Paint that Stops Rust— Completely......Page 839
17.7 Electrolysis......Page 841
CHEMICAL IMPACT The Chemistry of Sunken Treasure......Page 845
17.8 Commercial Electrolytic Processes......Page 846
Key Terms......Page 851
Questions and......Page 855
Exercises......Page 856
18 The Nucleus: A Chemist’s View......Page 865
18.1 Nuclear Stability and Radioactive Decay......Page 866
18.2 The Kinetics of Radioactive Decay......Page 871
18.3 Nuclear Transformations......Page 874
CHEMICAL IMPACT Stellar Nucleosynthesis......Page 875
18.4 Detection and Uses of Radioactivity......Page 877
18.5 Thermodynamic Stability of the Nucleus......Page 881
18.6 Nuclear Fission and Nuclear Fusion......Page 884
18.7 Effects of Radiation......Page 888
CHEMICAL IMPACT Nuclear Physics: An Introduction......Page 889
Key Terms......Page 892
Exercises......Page 894
19 The Representative Elements: Groups 1A Through 4A......Page 899
19.1 A Survey of the Representative Elements......Page 900
19.2 The Group 1A Elements......Page 905
19.3 Hydrogen......Page 908
19.4 The Group 2A Elements......Page 910
19.5 The Group 3A Elements......Page 913
CHEMICAL IMPACT Boost Your Boron......Page 914
19.6 The Group 4A Elements......Page 915
CHEMICAL IMPACT Concrete Learning......Page 917
CHEMICAL IMPACT Beethoven: Hair Is the Story......Page 918
Key Terms......Page 919
Questions and......Page 920
Exercises......Page 921
20 The Representative Elements: Groups 5A Through 8A......Page 925
20.1 The Group 5A Elements......Page 926
20.2 The Chemistry of Nitrogen......Page 928
CHEMICAL IMPACT Nitrous Oxide: Laughing Gas That Propels Whipped Cream and Cars......Page 937
20.3 The Chemistry of Phosphorus......Page 938
CHEMICAL IMPACT Phosphorus: An Illuminating Element......Page 939
20.4 The Group 6A Elements......Page 943
20.5 The Chemistry of Oxygen......Page 944
20.6 The Chemistry of Sulfur......Page 945
20.7 The Group 7A Elements......Page 949
CHEMICAL IMPACT Photography......Page 951
CHEMICAL IMPACT Automatic Sunglasses......Page 956
Key Terms......Page 958
Exercises......Page 961
21 Transition Metals and Coordination Chemistry......Page 967
21.1 The Transition Metals: A Survey......Page 968
21.2 The First-Row Transition Metals......Page 974
CHEMICAL IMPACT Titanium Dioxide—Miracle Coating......Page 976
CHEMICAL IMPACT Titanium Makes Great Bicycles......Page 977
21.3 Coordination Compounds......Page 980
21.4 Isomerism......Page 985
CHEMICAL IMPACT The Importance of Being cis......Page 988
21.5 Bonding in Complex Ions: The Localized Electron Model......Page 990
21.6 The Crystal Field Model......Page 992
CHEMICAL IMPACT Transition Metal Ions Lend Color to Gems......Page 995
21.7 The Biologic Importance of Coordination Complexes......Page 998
CHEMICAL IMPACT The Danger of Mercury......Page 1000
21.8 Metallurgy and Iron and Steel Production......Page 1003
Key Terms......Page 1012
Questions and......Page 1014
Exercises......Page 1015
22 Organic and Biological Molecules......Page 1021
22.1 Alkanes: Saturated Hydrocarbons......Page 1022
22.2 Alkenes and Alkynes......Page 1030
22.3 Aromatic Hydrocarbons......Page 1033
22.4 Hydrocarbon Derivatives......Page 1035
22.5 Polymers......Page 1041
CHEMICAL IMPACT Heal Thyself......Page 1043
CHEMICAL IMPACT Wallace Hume Carothers......Page 1047
CHEMICAL IMPACT Plastic That Talks and Listens......Page 1049
22.6 Natural Polymers......Page 1050
CHEMICAL IMPACT Tanning in the Shade......Page 1057
Key Terms......Page 1065
Questions and......Page 1069
Exercises......Page 1070
A1.1 Exponential Notation......Page 1082
A1.2 Logarithms......Page 1085
A1.3 Graphing Functions......Page 1087
A1.4 Solving Quadratic Equations......Page 1088
A1.5 Uncertainties in Measurements......Page 1091
Appendix 2 The Quantitative Kinetic Molecular Model......Page 1094
Appendix 3 Spectral Analysis......Page 1097
Appendix 4 Selected Thermodynamic Data......Page 1100
A5.1 Values of K[sub(a)] for Some Common Monoprotic Acids......Page 1103
A5.3 Values of K[sub(b)] for Some Common Weak Bases......Page 1104
A5.4 K[sub(sp)] Values at 25°C for Common Ionic Solids......Page 1105
A5.5 Standard Reduction Potentials at 25°C (298K) for Many Common Half-Reactions......Page 1106
Appendix 6 SI Units and Conversion Factors......Page 1107
Glossary......Page 1108
Photo Credits......Page 1120
Answers to Selected Exercises......Page 1122
Index......Page 1151