Chemistry

Cover
Title Page
Copyright Page
About the Author
Dedication
Brief Contents
Contents
Preface
Acknowledgments
1 CHEMISTRY: THE CENTRAL SCIENCE
	1.1 The Study of Chemistry
		Chemistry You May Already Know
		The Scientific Method
		What Do Molecules Look Like?
	1.2 Classification of Matter
		States of Matter
		Elements
		Compounds
		Mixtures
	1.3 Scientific Measurement
		SI Base Units
		Mass
		Temperature
		Fahrenheit Temperature Scale
		Derived Units: Volume and Density
		Why Are Units So Important?
	1.4 The Properties of Matter
		Physical Properties
		Chemical Properties
		Extensive and Intensive Properties
	1.5 Uncertainty in Measurement
		Significant Figures
		Calculations with Measured Numbers
		Accuracy and Precision
	1.6 Using Units and Solving Problems
		Conversion Factors
		How Can I Enhance My Chances of Success in Chemistry Class?
		Dimensional Analysis-Tracking Units
2 ATOMS, MOLECULES, AND IONS
	2.1 The Atomic Theory
	2.2 The Structure of the Atom
		Discovery of the Electron
		Radioactivity
		The Proton and the Nucleus
		Nuclear Model of the Atom
		The Neutron
	2.3 Atomic Number, Mass Number, and Isotopes
	2.4 The Periodic Table
		Distribution of Elements on Earth
	2.5 The Atomic Mass Scale and Average Atomic Mass
	2.6 Ions and Ionic Compounds
		Atomic Ions
		Polyatomic Ions
		Formulas of Ionic Compounds
		Naming Ionic Compounds
		Oxoanions
		Hydrates
	2.7 Molecules and Molecular Compounds
		Molecular Formulas
		Naming Molecular Compounds
		Simple Acids
		Oxoacids
		Empirical Formulas of Molecular Substances
	2.8 Compounds in Review
3 STOICHIOMETRY: RATIOS OF COMBINATION
	3.1 Molecular and Formula Masses
	3.2 Percent Composition of Compounds
	3.3 Chemical Equations
		Interpreting and Writing Chemical Equations
		Balancing Chemical Equations
		The Stoichiometry of Metabolism
	3.4 The Mole and Molar Masses
		The Mole
		Determining Molar Mass
		Interconverting Mass, Moles, and Numbers of Particles
		Empirical Formula from Percent Composition
	3.5 Combustion Analysis
		Determination of Empirical Formula
		Determination of Molecular Formula
	3.6 Calculations with Balanced Chemical Equations
		Moles of Reactants and Products
		Mass of Reactants and Products
	3.7 Limiting Reactants
		Determining the Limiting Reactant
		Reaction Yield
		Limiting Reactant Problems
		Types of Chemical Reactions
4 REACTIONS IN AQUEOUS SOLUTIONS
	4.1 General Properties of Aqueous Solutions
		Electrolytes and Nonelectrolytes
		Strong Electrolytes and Weak Electrolytes
		Identifying Electrolytes
	4.2 Precipitation Reactions
		Solubility Guidelines for Ionic Compounds in Water
		Molecular Equations
		Ionic Equations
		Net Ionic Equations
	4.3 Acid-Base Reactions
		Strong Acids and Bases
		Brønsted Acids and Bases
		Acid-Base Neutralization
	4.4 Oxidation-Reduction Reactions
		Oxidation Numbers
		Oxidation of Metals in Aqueous Solutions
		Balancing Simple Redox Equations
		Other Types of Redox Reactions
	4.5 Concentration of Solutions
		Molarity
		Preparing a Solution from a Solid
		Dilution
		Serial Dilution
		Solution Stoichiometry
		How Are Solution Concentrations Measured?
	4.6 Aqueous Reactions and Chemical Analysis
		Gravimetric Analysis
		Acid-Base Titrations
		Redox Titration
5 THERMOCHEMISTRY
	5.1 Energy and Energy Changes
		Forms of Energy
		Energy Changes in Chemical Reactions
		Units of Energy
	5.2 Introduction to Thermodynamics
		States and State Functions
		The First Law of Thermodynamics
		Work and Heat
	5.3 Enthalpy
		Reactions Carried Out at Constant Volume or at Constant Pressure
		Enthalpy and Enthalpy Changes
		Thermochemical Equations
	5.4 Calorimetry
		Specific Heat and Heat Capacity
		Constant-Pressure Calorimetry
		Determination of Hrxn by Constant-Pressure Calorimetry
		Heat Capacity and Hypothermia
		Determination of Specific Heat by Constant-Pressure Calorimetry
		Constant-Volume Calorimetry
		What if the Heat Capacity of the Calorimeter Isn't Negligible?
	5.5 Hess's Law
	5.6 Standard Enthalpies of Formation
6 QUANTUM THEORY AND THE ELECTRONIC STRUCTURE OF ATOMS
	6.1 The Nature of Light
		Properties of Waves
		The Electromagnetic Spectrum
		The Double-Slit Experiment
	6.2 Quantum Theory
		Quantization of Energy
		Laser Pointers
		Photons and the Photoelectric Effect
		Where Have I Encountered the Photoelectric Effect?
	6.3 Bohr's Theory of the Hydrogen Atom
		Atomic Line Spectra
		The Line Spectrum of Hydrogen
		Emission Spectrum of Hydrogen
		Lasers
	6.4 Wave Properties of Matter
		The de Broglie Hypothesis
		Diffraction of Electrons
	6.5 Quantum Mechanics
		The Uncertainty Principle
		The Schrödinger Equation
		The Quantum Mechanical Description of the Hydrogen Atom
	6.6 Quantum Numbers
		Principal Quantum Number (n)
		Angular Momentum Quantum Number (ℓ)
		Magnetic Quantum Number (mℓ)
		Electron Spin Quantum Number (ms)
	6.7 Atomic Orbitals
		s Orbitals
		p Orbitals
		d Orbitals and Other Higher-Energy Orbitals
		Energies of Orbitals
	6.8 Electron Configuration
		Energies of Atomic Orbitals in Many-Electron Systems
		The Pauli Exclusion Principle
		The Aufbau Principle
		Hund's Rule
		General Rules for Writing Electron Configurations
	6.9 Electron Configurations and the Periodic Table
7 ELECTRON CONFIGURATION AND THE PERIODIC TABLE
	7.1 Development of the Periodic Table
		The Chemical Elements of Life
	7.2 The Modern Periodic Table
		Classification of Elements
		Why Are There Two Different Sets of Numbers at the Top of the Periodic Table?
		Representing Free Elements in Chemical Equations
	7.3 Effective Nuclear Charge
	7.4 Periodic Trends in Properties of Elements
		Atomic Radius
		Ionization Energy
		Electron Affinity
		Metallic Character
		Explaining Periodic Trends
	7.5 Electron Configuration of Ions
		Ions of Main Group Elements
		Ions of d-Block Elements
	7.6 Ionic Radius
		Comparing Ionic Radius with Atomic Radius
		Isoelectronic Series
	7.7 Periodic Trends in Chemical Properties of the Main Group Elements
		General Trends in Chemical Properties
		Properties of the Active Metals
		Properties of Other Main Group Elements
		Comparison of Group 1A and Group 1B Elements
		Radioactive Bone
		Variation in Properties of Oxides Within a Period
8 CHEMICAL BONDING I: BASIC CONCEPTS
	8.1 Lewis Dot Symbols
	8.2 Ionic Bonding
		Lattice Energy
		The Born-Haber Cycle
		Born-Haber Cycle
	8.3 Covalent Bonding
		Lewis Structures
		Multiple Bonds
		Comparison of Ionic and Covalent Compounds
	8.4 Electronegativity and Polarity
		Electronegativity
		Dipole Moment, Partial Charges, and Percent Ionic Character
	8.5 Drawing Lewis Structures
	8.6 Lewis Structures and Formal Charge
	8.7 Resonance
	8.8 Exceptions to the Octet Rule
		Incomplete Octets
		Odd Numbers of Electrons
		The Power of Radicals
		Expanded Octets
		Which Is More Important: Formal Charge or the Octet Rule?
	8.9 Bond Enthalpy
9 CHEMICAL BONDING II: MOLECULAR GEOMETRY AND BONDING THEORIES
	9.1 Molecular Geometry
		The VSEPR Model
		Electron-Domain Geometry and Molecular Geometry
		Deviation from Ideal Bond Angles
		Geometry of Molecules with More than One Central Atom
		How Are Larger, More Complex Molecules Represented?
	9.2 Molecular Geometry and Polarity
		Can More Complex Molecules Contain Polar Bonds and Still Be Nonpolar?
	9.3 Valence Bond Theory
		Representing Electrons in Atomic Orbitals
		Energetics and Directionality of Bonding
	9.4 Hybridization of Atomic Orbitals
		Hybridization of s and p Orbitals
		Hybridization of s, p, and d Orbitals
	9.5 Hybridization in Molecules Containing Multiple Bonds
		Formation of Pi Bonds in Ethylene and Acetylene
	9.6 Molecular Orbital Theory
		Bonding and Antibonding Molecular Orbitals
		σ Molecular Orbitals
		Bond Order
		π Molecular Orbitals
		Molecular Orbital Diagrams
		Molecular Orbitals in Heteronuclear Diatomic Species
	9.7 Bonding Theories and Descriptions of Molecules with Delocalized Bonding
10 GASES
	10.1 Properties of Gases
		Characteristics of Gases
		Gas Pressure: Definition and Units
		Calculation of Pressure
		Measurement of Pressure
	10.2 The Gas Laws
		Boyle's Law: The Pressure-Volume Relationship
		Charles's and Gay-Lussac's Law: The Temperature-Volume Relationship
		Avogadro's Law: The Amount-Volume Relationship
		The Combined Gas Law: The Pressure-Temperature-Amount-Volume Relationship
	10.3 The Ideal Gas Equation
		Deriving the Ideal Gas Equation from the Empirical Gas Laws
		Applications of the Ideal Gas Equation
	10.4 Reactions with Gaseous Reactants and Products
		Calculating the Required Volume of a Gaseous Reactant
		Determining the Amount of Reactant Consumed Using Change in Pressure
		Predicting the Volume of a Gaseous Product
	10.5 Gas Mixtures
		Dalton's Law of Partial Pressures
		Mole Fractions
		Using Partial Pressures to Solve Problems
		Hyperbaric Oxygen Therapy
		Molar Volume of a Gas
	10.6 The Kinetic Molecular Theory of Gases
		Application to the Gas Laws
		Molecular Speed
		Diffusion and Effusion
	10.7 Deviation from Ideal Behavior
		Factors That Cause Deviation from Ideal Behavior
		The van der Waals Equation
		What's Really the Difference Between Real Gases and Ideal Gases?
11 INTERMOLECULAR FORCES AND THE PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF LIQUIDS AND SOLIDS
	11.1 Intermolecular Forces
		Dipole-Dipole Interactions
		Hydrogen Bonding
		Sickle Cell Disease
		Dispersion Forces
		Ion-Dipole Interactions
	11.2 Properties of Liquids
		Surface Tension
		Viscosity
		Vapor Pressure
	11.3 Crystal Structure
		Unit Cells
		Packing Spheres
		Closest Packing
	11.4 Types of Crystals
		Ionic Crystals
		How Do We Know the Structures of Crystals?
		Covalent Crystals
		Molecular Crystals
		Metallic Crystals
	11.5 Amorphous Solids
	11.6 Phase Changes
		Liquid-Vapor Phase Transition
		Solid-Liquid Phase Transition
		Solid-Vapor Phase Transition
		The Dangers of Phase Changes
	11.7 Phase Diagrams
12 MODERN MATERIALS
	12.1 Polymers
		Addition Polymers
		Condensation Polymers
		Electrically Conducting Polymers
	12.2 Ceramics and Composite Materials
		Ceramics
		Composite Materials
	12.3 Liquid Crystals
	12.4 Biomedical Materials
		Dental Implants
		Soft Tissue Materials
		Artificial Joints
	12.5 Nanotechnology
		Graphite, Buckyballs, and Nanotubes
	12.6 Semiconductors
	12.7 Superconductors
13 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF SOLUTIONS
	13.1 Types of Solutions
	13.2 The Solution Process
		Intermolecular Forces and Solubility
		Why Are Vitamins Referred to as Water Soluble and Fat Soluble?
		The Driving Force for Dissolution
	13.3 Concentration Units
		Molality
		Percent by Mass
		Comparison of Concentration Units
	13.4 Factors That Affect Solubility
		Temperature
		Pressure
	13.5 Colligative Properties
		Vapor-Pressure Lowering
		Boiling-Point Elevation
		Freezing-Point Depression
		Osmotic Pressure
		Electrolyte Solutions
		Intravenous Fluids
		Hemodialysis
	13.6 Calculations Using Colligative Properties
	13.7 Colloids
14 CHEMICAL KINETICS
	14.1 Reaction Rates
		Average Reaction Rate
		Instantaneous Rate
		Stoichiometry and Reaction Rate
	14.2 Dependence of Reaction Rate on Reactant Concentration
		The Rate Law
		Experimental Determination of the Rate Law
	14.3 Dependence of Reactant Concentration on Time
		First-Order Reactions
		Second-Order Reactions
	14.4 Dependence of Reaction Rate on Temperature
		Collision Theory
		The Arrhenius Equation
	14.5 Reaction Mechanisms
		Elementary Reactions
		Rate-Determining Step
		Experimental Support for Reaction Mechanisms
		Identifying Plausible Reaction Mechanisms
		Mechanisms with a Fast Initial Step
	14.6 Catalysis
		Heterogeneous Catalysis
		Homogeneous Catalysis
		Enzymes: Biological Catalysts
		Catalysis and Hangovers
15 CHEMICAL EQUILIBRIUM
	15.1 The Concept of Equilibrium
		How Do We Know that the Forward and Reverse Processes Are Ongoing in a System at Equilibrium?
	15.2 The Equilibrium Constant
		Calculating Equilibrium Constants
		Magnitude of the Equilibrium Constant
	15.3 Equilibrium Expressions
		Heterogeneous Equilibria
		Manipulating Equilibrium Expressions
		Equilibrium Expressions Containing Only Gases
	15.4 Using Equilibrium Expressions to Solve Problems
		Predicting the Direction of a Reaction
		Calculating Equilibrium Concentrations
		Equilibrium (ice) Tables
	15.5 Factors that Affect Chemical Equilibrium
		Addition or Removal of a Substance
		Changes in Volume and Pressure
		Changes in Temperature
		Le Châtelier's Principle
		What Happens to the Units in Equilibrium Constants?
		Catalysis
		Hemoglobin Production at High Altitude
16 ACIDS AND BASES
	16.1 Brønsted Acids and Bases
	16.2 The Acid-Base Properties of Water
	16.3 The pH Scale
		Antacids and the pH Balance in Your Stomach
	16.4 Strong Acids and Bases
		Strong Acids
		Strong Bases
	16.5 Weak Acids and Acid Ionization Constants
		The Ionization Constant, Ka
		Calculating pH from Ka
		Using Equilibrium Tables to Solve Problems
		Percent Ionization
		Using pH to Determine Ka
	16.6 Weak Bases and Base Ionization Constants
		The Ionization Constant, Kb
		Calculating pH from Kb
		Using pH to Determine Kb
	16.7 Conjugate Acid-Base Pairs
		The Strength of a Conjugate Acid or Base
		The Relationship between Ka and Kb of a Conjugate Acid-Base Pair
	16.8 Diprotic and Polyprotic Acids
	16.9 Molecular Structure and Acid Strength
		Hydrohalic Acids
		Oxoacids
		Carboxylic Acids
	16.10 Acid-Base Properties of Salt Solutions
		Basic Salt Solutions
		Acidic Salt Solutions
		Neutral Salt Solutions
		Salts in Which Both the Cation and the Anion Hydrolyze
	16.11 Acid-Base Properties of Oxides and Hydroxides
		Oxides of Metals and Nonmetals
		Basic and Amphoteric Hydroxides
	16.12 Lewis Acids and Bases
17 ACID-BASE EQUILIBRIA AND SOLUBILITY EQUILIBRIA
	17.1 The Common Ion Effect
	17.2 Buffer Solutions
		Calculating the pH of a Buffer
		Buffer Solutions
		Preparing a Buffer Solution with a Specific pH
		Maintaining the pH of Blood
	17.3 Acid-Base Titrations
		Strong Acid-Strong Base Titrations
		Weak Acid-Strong Base Titrations
		Strong Acid-Weak Base Titrations
		Acid-Base Indicators
	17.4 Solubility Equilibria
		Solubility Product Expression and Ksp
		Calculations Involving Ksp and Solubility
		Predicting Precipitation Reactions
	17.5 Factors Affecting Solubility
		The Common Ion Effect
		pH
		Common Ion Effect
		Complex Ion Formation
	17.6 Separation of Ions Using Differences in Solubility
		Fractional Precipitation
		Qualitative Analysis of Metal Ions in Solution
18 ENTROPY, FREE ENERGY, AND EQUILIBRIUM
	18.1 Spontaneous Processes
	18.2 Entropy
		A Qualitative Description of Entropy
		A Quantitative Definition of Entropy
	18.3 Entropy Changes in a System
		Calculating ΔSsys
		Standard Entropy, S°
		Qualitatively Predicting the Sign of ΔS° sys
		Factors That Influence the Entropy of a System
	18.4 Entropy Changes in the Universe
		Calculating ΔSsurr
		The Second Law of Thermodynamics
		The Third Law of Thermodynamics
	18.5 Predicting Spontaneity
		Gibbs Free-Energy Change, ΔG
		Standard Free-Energy Changes, ΔG°
		Using ΔG and ΔG° to Solve Problems
	18.6 Free Energy and Chemical Equilibrium
		Relationship Between ΔG and ΔG°
		Relationship Between ΔG° and K
	18.7 Thermodynamics in Living Systems
19 ELECTROCHEMISTRY
	19.1 Balancing Redox Reactions
	19.2 Galvanic Cells
		Construction of a Galvanic Cell
	19.3 Standard Reduction Potentials
	19.4 Spontaneity of Redox Reactions Under Standard-State Conditions
	19.5 Spontaneity of Redox Reactions Under Conditions Other than Standard State
		The Nernst Equation
		Concentration Cells
		Biological Concentration Cells
	19.6 Batteries
		Dry Cells and Alkaline Batteries
		Lead Storage Batteries
		Lithium-Ion Batteries
		Fuel Cells
	19.7 Electrolysis
		Electrolysis of Molten Sodium Chloride
		Electrolysis of Water
		Electrolysis of an Aqueous Sodium Chloride Solution
		Quantitative Applications of Electrolysis
	19.8 Corrosion
20 NUCLEAR CHEMISTRY
	20.1 Nuclei and Nuclear Reactions
	20.2 Nuclear Stability
		Patterns of Nuclear Stability
		Nuclear Binding Energy
	20.3 Natural Radioactivity
		Kinetics of Radioactive Decay
		Dating Based on Radioactive Decay
	20.4 Nuclear Transmutation
	20.5 Nuclear Fission
		Nuclear Fission and Fusion
	20.6 Nuclear Fusion
	20.7 Uses of Isotopes
		Chemical Analysis
		Isotopes in Medicine
	20.8 Biological Effects of Radiation
		Radioactivity in Tobacco
21 ENVIRONMENTAL CHEMISTRY
	21.1 Earth's Atmosphere
	21.2 Phenomena in the Outer Layers of the Atmosphere
		Aurora Borealis and Aurora Australis
		The Mystery Glow of Space Shuttles
	21.3 Depletion of Ozone in the Stratosphere
		Polar Ozone Holes
	21.4 Volcanoes
	21.5 The Greenhouse Effect
	21.6 Acid Rain
	21.7 Photochemical Smog
	21.8 Indoor Pollution
		The Risk from Radon
		Carbon Dioxide and Carbon Monoxide
		Formaldehyde
22 COORDINATION CHEMISTRY
	22.1 Coordination Compounds
		Properties of Transition Metals
		Ligands
		Nomenclature of Coordination Compounds
	22.2 Structure of Coordination Compounds
	22.3 Bonding in Coordination Compounds: Crystal Field Theory
		Crystal Field Splitting in Octahedral Complexes
		Color
		Magnetic Properties
		Tetrahedral and Square-Planar Complexes
	22.4 Reactions of Coordination Compounds
	22.5 Applications of Coordination Compounds
		The Coordination Chemistry of Oxygen Transport
23 METALLURGY AND THE CHEMISTRY OF METALS
	23.1 Occurrence of Metals
		The Importance of Molybdenum
	23.2 Metallurgical Processes
		Preparation of the Ore
		Production of Metals
		The Metallurgy of Iron
		Steelmaking
		Purification of Metals
	23.3 Band Theory of Conductivity
		Conductors
		Semiconductors
	23.4 Periodic Trends in Metallic Properties
	23.5 The Alkali Metals
	23.6 The Alkaline Earth Metals
		Magnesium
		Calcium
	23.7 Aluminum
24 NONMETALLIC ELEMENTS AND THEIR COMPOUNDS
	24.1 General Properties of Nonmetals
	24.2 Hydrogen
		Binary Hydrides
		Isotopes of Hydrogen
		Hydrogenation
		The Hydrogen Economy
	24.3 Carbon
	24.4 Nitrogen and Phosphorus
		Nitrogen
		Phosphorus
	24.5 Oxygen and Sulfur
		Oxygen
		Sulfur
	24.6 The Halogens
		Preparation and General Properties of the Halogens
		Compounds of the Halogens
		Uses of the Halogens
25 ORGANIC CHEMISTRY
	25.1 Why Carbon Is Different
	25.2 Organic Compounds
		Classes of Organic Compounds
		Naming Organic Compounds
		How Do We Name Molecules with More Than One Substituent?
		How Do We Name Compounds with Specific Functional Groups?
	25.3 Representing Organic Molecules
		Condensed Structural Formulas
		Kekulé Structures
		Skeletal Structures
		Resonance
	25.4 Isomerism
		Constitutional Isomerism
		Stereoisomerism
		Plane-Polarized Light and 3-D Movies
		Biological Activity of Enantiomers
	25.5 Organic Reactions
		Addition Reactions
		Substitution Reactions
		SN1 Reactions
		Other Types of Organic Reactions
		The Chemistry of Vision
	25.6 Organic Polymers
		Addition Polymers
		Condensation Polymers
		Biological Polymers
Appendixes
	1 Mathematical Operations
	2 Thermodynamic Data at 1 ATM and 25°C
	3 Solubility Product Constants at 25°C
	4 Dissociation Constants for Weak Acids and Bases at 25°C
Glossary
Answers to Odd-Numbered Problems
Index