Chemistry 2: VCE units 3 & 4

About eBookPLUS and studyON ix
How to use this book x
Acknowledgements xii
UNIT 3
  Area of study 1
    Chapter 1 Choosing fuels 2
      Energy and fuels 3
        What is energy? 3
        Energy from common fuels 3
        Thermochemical equations 4
      Different forms of energy 5
        Energy conversions 5
        Energy converters 8
      Energy use in society 9
        Global energy use 9
        Renewable and non-renewable resources 9
        Choosing energy sources 11
      Non-renewable fuels 12
        Fossil fuels 12
        Coal 12
        Petroleum 13
        Natural gas 14
        Biofuels 16
      Petrodiesel versus biodiesel — comparing fuels 17
        Producing petrodiesel 17
        Biodiesel production 19
      Energy use and the environment 22
        The effect of use of fossil fuels on the environment 22
        Sustainable energy 24
      Chapter review 26
    Chapter 2 Energy calculations 31
      Energy changes in chemical reactions 32
        Exothermic and endothermic reactions 33
      Thermochemical equations 34
        Calculating ΔH values from two or more related reactions 37
      Working with gases 38
      Specifying the large-scale behaviour of gases 39
        Gas pressure 39
        Temperature 40
        Volume 41
        Laws to describe the behaviour of gases 41
        The combined gas equation 43
      Standard conditions for measuring gases 44
      Molar gas volume and Avogadro’s hypothesis 44
      The universal gas equation 46
      Mass – volume stoichiometry 47
      Volume – volume stoichiometry 49
        Applying volume stoichiometry to thermochemistry 50
      Fuels and greenhouse gases 51
        How do we obtain the energy output of a fuel? 54
      Chapter review 57
    Chapter 3 Converting chemical energy to electrical energy 66
      Redox reactions 67
        Frog power? 67
      Oxidation numbers 68
        Rules for determining oxidation numbers 68
        Using oxidation numbers 69
      Identifying redox reactions 70
        Half-equations and redox equations 72
      Harnessing redox reactions 73
      Galvanic cells in the laboratory 76
        Types of half-cell 77
        Standard electrode potentials 78
        Use of standard half-cell reduction potentials 81
        The unpredictability of the rate of electrochemical reactions 84
      Cells and batteries 85
        Factors affecting selection of cells 85
      Primary cells 86
        The dry cell 86
        The alkaline zinc/manganese dioxide cell 87
        Button cells 88
        Lithium cells 89
      Fuel cells 91
        Where are fuel cells used? 91
        Fuel cell design 91
        Types of fuel cell 92
        Environmental and safety considerations 96
      Chapter review 98
  Area of study 2
    Chapter 4 Electrolysis 107
      Metals through the ages 108
      Electrolysis — the process 108
        Electrolytic cells 109
        Comparing galvanic and electrolytic cells 110
      Electrolysis of molten ionic compounds 112
      Electrolysis of water 113
      Electrolysis of aqueous solutions of ionic compounds 113
        Predicting reactions during electrolysis of aqueous solutions 113
      Factors affecting electrolysis of aqueous solutions 115
        The effect of concentration 115
        The nature of the electrolyte 116
        The nature of the electrodes 117
      Commercial applications of electrolysis 118
        Producing aluminium 118
        Industrial electrolysis of brine 120
        Electroplating 121
      Calculations in electrolysis — Faraday’s laws 123
        Michael Faraday 123
        Faraday’s first law of electrolysis 123
        Faraday’s second law of electrolysis 124
        Applying Faraday’s laws of electrolysis 125
        Faraday’s laws in industry 127
      Secondary cells — rechargeable batteries 128
        Lead–acid accumulator 128
        Nickel metal hydride rechargeable cell 131
        Rechargeable lithium ion cell 131
        Factors affecting battery life 133
      Chapter review 135
    Chapter 5 Rates of reactions 142
      How does a chemical reaction occur? 143
        Collision theory 144
        Measuring reaction rates 144
        Maxwell–Boltzmann distribution curves 145
      Factors that affect the rate of a reaction 146
        Concentration 146
        Pressure 146
        Temperature 146
        Catalysts 147
        Catalytic converters — catalysts in car exhausts 149
        The effect of surface area 149
      Chapter review 151
    Chapter 6 Equilibrium systems 155
      Chemical equilibrium 156
      The equilibrium law 156
        A closer look at equilibrium constants 158
      The dynamic nature of equilibrium 159
        Dynamic equilibrium and collision theory 160
        The distinction between rate and extent 160
      Calculations involving the equilibrium constant 160
      How can we tell if a reaction is at equilibrium? 164
        Reaction quotient, Q, and the equilibrium constant, K_c 165
        Representing chemical equilibrium graphically 165
      Making changes to equilibrium mixtures — Le Châtelier’s principle 167
        Adding or removing a substance that is involved in the reaction 168
      Explaining Le Châtelier’s principle mathematically 169
        The effect of changing volume 170
        The effect of changing temperature 172
      The yield of a chemical reaction 173
      Le Châtelier’s principle and industrial chemicals 174
        Making ammonia — applying equilibrium and rate principles in industry 174
        The Haber process 175
      An important biological application of equilibrium 177
        Transport of oxygen by the blood 177
        Carbon monoxide poisoning 178
        Treating victims of carbon monoxide poisoning 179
      Chapter review 180

UNIT 4
  Area of study 3
    Chapter 7 Key practical skills and communication 190
      Key practical skills in chemistry 191
      Preparing for your experiment 192
        Logbook 192
        Which question will you choose? 192
        Formulating your hypothesis and aim 193
      Planning your experiment 193
      Performing your experiment 195
      Analysing your data 196
      Producing your poster 196
      Dealing with variables 197
        Independent variables 197
        Dependent variables 198
        Controlled variables 198
        More about variables 198
        Dealing with variables experimentally 198
      Working with figures 199
        Scientific notation 199
        Significant figures 200
        How do we count significant figures? 201
        How are significant figures determined experimentally?
        Significant figures and calculations 202
        An ambiguous case 202
        Errors and uncertainties 203
        Reliability and accuracy 204
      Tables and graphs 204
        Interpreting line graphs 205
      Working safely 206
        General safety rules 206
        Risk assessments 207
      Acknowledging sources 208
        Bibliographies 209
      Chapter review 211
  Area of study 1
    Chapter 8 Structures and nomenclature of organic compounds 212
      Carbon: a unique element 213
        Organic chemistry 213
        Hydrocarbons 215
        Alkanes 215
        Alkenes 220
        Alkynes 222
        Carbon rings 223
      Functional groups 224
        Alcohols 225
        Aldehydes 227
        Ketones 227
        Carboxylic acids 228
        Esters 230
        Amines 232
        Amides 233
        Haloalkanes 234
        Compounds containing more than one functional group 234
      Chapter review 236
    Chapter 9 Properties and reactions of organic compounds 241
      Physical and chemical properties of organic compounds 242
      Properties and bonding 242
      Bonding in and between organic molecules 242
      Isomers — same but different 243
        Structural isomerism 244
        Stereoisomerism 245
      Physical properties of hydrocarbons 248
        Alkanes 248
        Flashpoint 249
        Alkenes and alkynes 250
      How do functional groups affect physical properties? 250
        Alcohols 251
        Carboxylic acids 252
        Aldehydes, ketones and esters 252
        Amines and amides 253
      Reactions of organic compounds 253
        Reactions of alkanes and alkenes 254
        Combustion of alkanes and alkenes 254
        Substitution reactions of alkanes 254
        Cracking 256
        Addition reactions of alkenes 256
        Addition polymerisation 257
        Reactions of haloalkanes 259
        Reactions of alcohols 259
        Reactions of alcohols — summary 260
        Reactions of carboxylic acids 261
        Formation of esters 261
        Polyesters 262
        Reaction of carboxylic acids with amines 263
        Reactions of carboxylic acids — summary 263
      Organic pathways 264
      Measuring the efficiency of reactions 264
        Percentage yield 264
        Atom economy 265
      Chapter review 267
     Chapter 10 Analysis of organic compounds 274
      Chemical analysis 275
      Spectroscopy 275
        Mass spectrometry 275
        Infrared spectroscopy 278
        Nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy 283
      Chromatography 293
        Principles of chromatography 293
        High-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) 294
      Combining techniques 300
      Volumetric analysis 302
        Standard solutions 303
        How do we know when to stop a titration? 304
        More about these titration curves 307
        Stoichiometry and volumetric analysis 308
        Some examples of volumetric analysis 308
        Sources of error 311
      Chapter review 312
  Area of study 2
    Chapter 11 Vitamins and proteins 322
      Eating chemicals 323
      Vital vitamins 324
      Proteins in the body 327
        Amino acids — building blocks of proteins 328
        Formation of proteins 331
        Structure of proteins 332
      Enzymes as protein catalysts 333
        The structure and action of enzymes 333
        Coenzymes — enzyme helpers 334
        Factors affecting the action of enzymes 335
      Digestion of protein 337
        What happens to digested protein? 338
      Chapter review 340
    Chapter 12 Food and energy 346
      Energy and food 347
      Types of carbohydrates 347
        Monosaccharides and disaccharides 347
        Polysaccharides 351
        Contents
      Digestion of carbohydrates 354
        What happens to digested carbohydrates? 355
        Lactose intolerance 356
        Are all carbohydrates equally beneficial? 357
      Fats and oils 358
        Properties and reactions of fats and oils 360
        Oxidation of food 361
        Essential fatty acids 362
        Digestion of fats and oils 362
      Energy in foods 364
        Nutrition information labels 364
      Measuring energy changes in chemical reactions — calorimetry 364
        Solution calorimeter 365
        Bomb calorimeter 367
      Chapter review 370
Practical investigations (eBook Plus - online only) 376
Answers 377
Glossary 421
Index 427
Periodic table of the elements 432