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دانلود کتاب Chemistry
دانلود کتاب علم شیمی
مشخصات کتاب
Chemistry
ویرایش: 4
نویسندگان: Allan G. Blackman
سری:
ISBN (شابک) : 9780730355038, 0730355039
ناشر:
سال نشر: 2019
تعداد صفحات: 1705
زبان: English
فرمت فایل : PDF (درصورت درخواست کاربر به PDF، EPUB یا AZW3 تبدیل می شود)
حجم فایل: 547 مگابایت
قیمت کتاب (تومان) : 39,000
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فهرست مطالب
Chemistry Brief contents Contents About the authors 1 The atom 1.1 The essential concepts in brief 1.2 The atomic theory 1.3 The structure of the atom Atomic mass 1.4 The periodic table of the elements The modern periodic table Naming the elements 1.5 Electrons in atoms SUMMARY KEY CONCEPTS AND EQUATIONS KEY TERMS REVIEW QUESTIONS REVIEW PROBLEMS ADDITIONAL EXERCISES ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 2 The language of chemistry 2.1 Measurement SI units Non-SI units Dimensional analysis Precision and accuracy Uncertainties and significant figures 2.2 Representations of molecules and reactions Chemical formulae Structural formulae Three-dimensional structures Mechanistic arrows in chemical reactions 2.3 Nomenclature Naming inorganic compounds Naming organic compounds SUMMARY KEY CONCEPTS AND EQUATIONS KEY TERMS REVIEW QUESTIONS REVIEW PROBLEMS ADDITIONAL EXERCISES MATHS FOR CHEMISTRY The equation to be rearranged involves addition or subtraction The equation to be rearranged involves multiplication or division ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 3 Chemical reactions and stoichiometry 3.1 Chemical equations Specifying states of matter 3.2 Balancing chemical equations 3.3 The mole 3.4 Empirical formulae Mole ratios from chemical formulae Determination of chemical formulae Determination of empirical formulae 3.5 Stoichiometry, limiting reagents and percentage yield Mole ratios in chemical reactions Limiting reagents Percentage yield 3.6 Solution stoichiometry The concentration of solutions Applications of solution stoichiometry Stoichiometry of solutions containing ions SUMMARY KEY CONCEPTS AND EQUATIONS KEY TERMS REVIEW QUESTIONS REVIEW PROBLEMS ADDITIONAL EXERCISES ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 4 Atomic energy levels 4.1 Characteristics of atoms 4.2 Characteristics of light Wave-like properties of light Particle properties of light Absorption and emission spectra Atomic spectra Quantisation of energy Energy level diagrams 4.3 Properties of electrons The Heisenberg uncertainty principle 4.4 Quantisation and quantum numbers Principal quantum number (n) Azimuthal quantum number (l) Magnetic quantum number (ml) Spin quantum number (ms) The Pauli exclusion principle 4.5 Atomic orbital electron distributions and energies Orbital electron distributions Orbital energies 4.6 Structure of the periodic table The Aufbau principle and order of orbital filling Valence electrons 4.7 Electron configurations Electron–electron repulsion Orbitals with nearly equal energies Configurations of ions Magnetic properties of atoms Excited states 4.8 Periodicity of atomic properties Atomic radii Ionisation energy Electron affinity Sizes of ions 4.9 Ions and chemical periodicity Cation stability Anion stability Metals, nonmetals and metalloids s-block elements p-block elements SUMMARY KEY CONCEPTS AND EQUATIONS KEY TERMS REVIEW QUESTIONS REVIEW PROBLEMS ADDITIONAL EXERCISES ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 5 Chemical bonding and molecular structure 5.1 Fundamentals of bonding The hydrogen molecule Bond length and bond energy Other diatomic molecules: F2 Unequal electron sharing 5.2 Ionic bonding 5.3 Lewis structures The conventions Building Lewis structures Resonance structures 5.4 Valence-shell-electron-pair repulsion (VSEPR) theory Two sets of electron pairs: linear geometry Three sets of electron pairs: trigonal planar geometry Four sets of electron pairs: tetrahedral geometry Five sets of electron pairs: trigonal bipyramidal geometry Six sets of electron pairs: octahedral geometry 5.5 Properties of covalent bonds Dipole moments Bond length Bond energy Summary of molecular shapes 5.6 Valence bond theory Orbital overlap Conventions of the orbital overlap model Hybridisation of atomic orbitals Multiple bonds 5.7 Molecular orbital theory: diatomic molecules Molecular orbitals of H2 and He2 Molecular orbitals of O2 Homonuclear diatomic molecules Heteronuclear diatomic molecules SUMMARY KEY CONCEPTS AND EQUATIONS KEY TERMS REVIEW QUESTIONS REVIEW PROBLEMS ADDITIONAL EXERCISES ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 6 Gases 6.1 The states of matter 6.2 Describing gases Pressure (p) The gas laws The ideal gas equation 6.3 Molecular view of gases Molecular speeds Speed and energy Average kinetic energy and temperature Rates of gas movement Ideal gases 6.4 Gas mixtures Daltons law of partial pressures Describing gas mixtures 6.5 Applications of the ideal gas equation Determination of molar mass Determination of gas density 6.6 Gas stoichiometry Summary of mole conversions 6.7 Real gases The halogens Properties of real gases The van der Waals equation Melting and boiling points 6.8 Intermolecular forces Dispersion forces Dipolar forces Hydrogen bonds Binary hydrogen compounds SUMMARY KEY CONCEPTS AND EQUATIONS KEY TERMS REVIEW QUESTIONS REVIEW PROBLEMS ADDITIONAL EXERCISES ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 7 Condensed phases: liquids and solids 7.1 Liquids Properties of liquids Vapour pressure 7.2 Solids Magnitudes of forces Molecular solids Network solids Metallic solids Ionic solids 7.3 Phase changes Supercritical fluids Phase diagrams 7.4 Order in solids Close-packed structures The crystal lattice and the unit cell Cubic structures Ionic solids 7.5 X-ray diffraction 7.6 Amorphous solids 7.7 Crystal imperfections 7.8 Modern ceramics Properties of ceramics Applications of advanced ceramics High-temperature superconductors SUMMARY KEY CONCEPTS AND EQUATIONS KEY TERMS REVIEW QUESTIONS REVIEW PROBLEMS ADDITIONAL EXERCISES ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 8 Chemical thermodynamics 8.1 Introduction to chemical thermodynamics 8.2 Thermodynamic concepts Heat and temperature System, surroundings and universe Units State functions DG and spontaneity 8.3 The first law of thermodynamics Heat capacity and specific heat Determination of heat 8.4 Enthalpy Standard enthalpy of reaction Hesss law Standard enthalpy of formation Standard enthalpy of combustion Bond enthalpies 8.5 Entropy Entropy and probability Entropy and entropy change Factors that affect entropy 8.6 The second law of thermodynamics 8.7 The third law of thermodynamics 8.8 Gibbs energy and reaction spontaneity The sign of DG Standard Gibbs energy change Gibbs energy and work Gibbs energy and equilibrium SUMMARY KEY CONCEPTS AND EQUATIONS KEY TERMS REVIEW QUESTIONS REVIEW PROBLEMS ADDITIONAL EXERCISES ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 9 Chemical equilibrium 9.1 Chemical equilibrium 9.2 The equilibrium constant, K, and the reaction quotient, Q Manipulating equilibrium constant expressions The magnitude of the equilibrium constant Equilibrium constant expressions for heterogeneous systems 9.3 Equilibrium and Gibbs energy Gibbs energy diagrams The relationship between ?rGө and K 9.4 How systems at equilibrium respond to change Le Châtelier's principle Adding or removing a product or reactant Changing the pressure in gaseous reactions Changing the temperature of a reaction mixture Addition of a catalyst 9.5 Equilibrium calculations Calculating Kc from equilibrium concentrations: the concentration table Calculating equilibrium concentrations from initial concentrations SUMMARY KEY CONCEPTS AND EQUATIONS KEY TERMS REVIEW QUESTIONS REVIEW PROBLEMS ADDITIONAL EXERCISES MATHS FOR CHEMISTRY The natural logarithm: ln or loge Simplifying complicated fractions ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 10 Solutions and solubility 10.1 Introduction to solutions and solubility 10.2 Gaseous solutions 10.3 Liquid solutions Gas–liquid solutions Liquid–liquid solutions Liquid–solid solutions 10.4 Quantification of solubility: the solubility product The relationship between Ksp and solubility The common ion effect Will a precipitate form? 10.5 Colligative properties of solutions Molarity Molality Mole fraction Raoult's law Solutions containing more than one volatile component Boiling point elevation and freezing point depression Osmosis and osmotic pressure Measurement of solute dissociation SUMMARY KEY CONCEPTS AND EQUATIONS KEY TERMS REVIEW QUESTIONS REVIEW PROBLEMS ADDITIONAL EXERCISES ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 11 Acids and bases 11.1 The Brønsted–Lowry definition of acids and bases Conjugate acid–base pairs 11.2 Acid–base reactions in water The autoprotolysis of water The concept of pH The strength of acids and bases 11.3 Strong acids and bases pH calculations in solutions of strong acids and bases Suppression of the autoprotolysis of water 11.4 Weak acids and bases pH calculations in solutions of weak acids and bases pH calculations in solutions of salts of weak acids and bases Solutions that contain the salt of a weak acid and a weak base Situations where simplifying assumptions do not work 11.5 The molecular basis of acid strength Binary acids Oxoacids 11.6 Buffer solutions pH calculations in buffer solutions 11.7 Acid–base titrations Strong acid – strong base and strong base – strong acid titrations Weak acid – strong base and weak base – strong acid titrations Diprotic acids Speciation diagrams Acid–base indicators 11.8 Lewis acids and bases Recognising Lewis acids and bases Polarisability The hard–soft concept The hard–soft acid–base principle SUMMARY KEY CONCEPTS AND EQUATIONS KEY TERMS REVIEW QUESTIONS REVIEW PROBLEMS ADDITIONAL EXERCISES ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 12 Oxidation and reduction 12.1 Oxidation and reduction Oxidation numbers 12.2 Balancing net ionic equations for redox reactions Redox reactions in acidic and basic solutions 12.3 Galvanic cells Example 1: metallic zinc in copper sulfate solution Example 2: copper in zinc sulfate solution Example 3: copper coil in a solution of silver ions Setting up a galvanic cell Processes in galvanic cells 12.4 Reduction potentials Cell and standard cell potentials Reduction and standard reduction potentials Determining standard reduction potentials Spontaneous and nonspontaneous reactions Oxidising and nonoxidising acids 12.5 Relationship between cell potential, concentration and Gibbs energy The Gibbs energy change, ?G Equilibrium constant, K The Nernst equation Concentration cells 12.6 Corrosion 12.7 Electrolysis What is electrolysis? Comparison of electrolytic and galvanic cells Electrolysis in aqueous solutions Stoichiometry of electrochemical reactions 12.8 Batteries The lead storage battery Dry cell batteries Modern high-performance batteries Fuel cells SUMMARY KEY CONCEPTS AND EQUATIONS KEY TERMS REVIEW QUESTIONS REVIEW PROBLEMS ADDITIONAL EXERCISES ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 13 Transition metal chemistry 13.1 Metals in the periodic table 13.2 Transition metals 13.3 Ligands 13.4 Transition metal complexes Structures of transition metal complexes Isomerism in transition metal complexes The nomenclature of transition metal complexes The chelate effect Inert and labile transition metal complexes Electrochemical aspects of transition metal complexes Bonding in transition metal complexes The colours of transition metal complexes The magnetic properties of transition metal complexes 13.5 Transition metal ions in biological systems Transport and storage metalloproteins Metalloenzymes Electron transfer proteins 13.6 Isolation and purification of transition metals Separation Conversion Reduction Refining Iron and steel Titanium Copper 13.7 Applications of transition metals Titanium Chromium Copper, silver and gold Zinc and mercury The platinum metals SUMMARY KEY CONCEPTS AND EQUATIONS KEY TERMS REVIEW QUESTIONS REVIEW PROBLEMS ADDITIONAL EXERCISES ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 14 The p-block elements 14.1 The p-block elements Group 13 Group 14 Group 15 Group 16 Group 17 Group 18 14.2 Reactivity of the p-block elements Bonding in the p-block elements Group 13 compounds Group 14 compounds Group 15 compounds Group 16 compounds Group 17 compounds 14.3 The biogeochemical cycles of nature The group 16 cycles The group 15 cycles SUMMARY KEY CONCEPTS AND EQUATIONS KEY TERMS REVIEW QUESTIONS REVIEW PROBLEMS ADDITIONAL EXERCISES ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 15 Reaction kinetics 15.1 Reaction rates 15.2 Factors that affect reaction rates Chemical nature of the reactants Physical nature of the reactants Concentrations of the reactants Temperature of the system Presence of catalysts 15.3 Overview of rate laws 15.4 Types of rate laws: differential and integrated The differential rate law The integrated rate law 15.5 Theory of chemical kinetics Collision theory 15.6 Reaction mechanisms The rate-determining step The steady-state approximation 15.7 Catalysts Homogeneous catalysts Heterogeneous catalysts Enzyme kinetics SUMMARY KEY CONCEPTS AND EQUATIONS KEY TERMS REVIEW QUESTIONS REVIEW PROBLEMS ADDITIONAL EXERCISES MATHS FOR CHEMISTRY ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 16 The chemistry of carbon 16.1 Introduction to hydrocarbons 16.2 Alkanes Conformation of alkanes Cycloalkanes Naming alkanes and cycloalkanes Conformations of cycloalkanes Physical properties of alkanes 16.3 Alkenes and alkynes Shapes of alkenes and alkynes Nomenclature of alkenes and alkynes Physical properties of alkenes and alkynes 16.4 Reactions of alkanes 16.5 Reactions of alkenes Electrophilic addition reactions 16.6 Reactions of alkynes 16.7 Aromatic compounds The structure of benzene The concept of aromaticity Nomenclature 16.8 Reactions of aromatic compounds: electrophilic aromatic substitution Halogenation Nitration and sulfonation Alkylation Acylation SUMMARY KEY CONCEPTS AND EQUATIONS KEY TERMS REVIEW QUESTIONS REVIEW PROBLEMS ADDITIONAL EXERCISES ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 17 Chirality 17.1 Stereoisomers 17.2 Enantiomerism Stereocentres Representing enantiomers of complicated organic molecules 17.3 Naming stereocentres: the R,S system 17.4 Molecules with more than one stereocentre Acyclic molecules with two stereocentres Cyclic molecules with two stereocentres Molecules with three or more stereocentres 17.5 Optical activity: detecting chirality in the laboratory Plane-polarised light Polarimeters Measuring the rotation of plane-polarised light Racemic mixtures 17.6 Chirality in the biological world How an enzyme distinguishes between enantiomers 17.7 Synthesising chiral drugs Resolution Asymmetric synthesis SUMMARY KEY CONCEPTS AND EQUATIONS KEY TERMS REVIEW QUESTIONS REVIEW PROBLEMS ADDITIONAL EXERCISES ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 18 Haloalkanes 18.1 Haloalkanes Nomenclature Synthesis of haloalkanes Chlorination and bromination Principal reactions of haloalkanes 18.2 Nucleophilic substitution Mechanisms of nucleophilic substitution Experimental evidence for SN1 and SN2 mechanisms 18.3 ?-elimination Mechanisms of ?-elimination 18.4 Substitution versus elimination SN1 versus E1 reactions SN2 versus E2 reactions SUMMARY KEY CONCEPTS AND EQUATIONS KEY TERMS REVIEW QUESTIONS REVIEW PROBLEMS ADDITIONAL EXERCISES ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 19 Alcohols, amines and related compounds 19.1 Alcohols Physical properties Preparation of alcohols 19.2 Reactions of alcohols Acidity of alcohols Basicity of alcohols Reaction with active metals Conversion to haloalkanes Acid-catalysed dehydration to alkenes Oxidation of primary and secondary alcohols Ester formation 19.3 Phenols Acidity of phenols Acid–base reactions of phenols Oxidation of phenols Ester and ether formation 19.4 Ethers Physical properties Reactions of ethers 19.5 Thiols Physical properties Reactions of thiols 19.6 Amines Physical properties Preparation of amines 19.7 Reactions of amines Basicity of amines Reaction with acids Reaction of primary aromatic amines with nitrous acid Amide formation SUMMARY KEY CONCEPTS AND EQUATIONS KEY TERMS REVIEW QUESTIONS REVIEW PROBLEMS ADDITIONAL EXERCISES ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 20 Spectroscopy 20.1 Tools for determining structure The index of hydrogen deficiency 20.2 Mass spectrometry Isotopes in mass spectrometry 20.3 Infrared spectroscopy Electromagnetic radiation The vibrational infrared spectrum Molecular vibrations Correlation tables 20.4 Interpreting infrared spectra General rules for interpretation of IR spectra Alkanes Alkenes Alkynes Alcohols Ethers Benzene and its derivatives Amines Aldehydes and ketones Carboxylic acids and their derivatives 20.5 Nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy The origin of nuclear magnetic resonance Shielding An NMR spectrometer Equivalent hydrogen atoms Signal areas Chemical shift Signal splitting and the (n + 1) rule 13C-NMR spectroscopy 20.6 Interpreting NMR spectra Alkanes Alkenes Alcohols Benzene and its derivatives Amines Aldehydes and ketones Carboxylic acids Esters Solving NMR problems 20.7 Other tools for determining structure SUMMARY KEY CONCEPTS AND EQUATIONS KEY TERMS REVIEW QUESTIONS REVIEW PROBLEMS ADDITIONAL EXERCISES ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 21 Aldehydes and ketones 21.1 Structure and bonding 21.2 Nomenclature IUPAC names for compounds with more than one functional group 21.3 Physical properties 21.4 Preparation of aldehydes and ketones Industrially important aldehydes and ketones Friedel–Crafts acylation Oxidation of alcohols Ozonolysis of alkenes Hydration of alkynes 21.5 Reactions Addition of Grignard reagents Addition of other carbon nucleophiles Addition of alcohols Addition of ammonia, amines and related compounds Reduction Oxidation of aldehydes to carboxylic acids Oxidation of ketones to carboxylic acids 21.6 Keto–enol tautomerism Racemisation at an ?-carbon atom ?-halogenation SUMMARY KEY CONCEPTS AND EQUATIONS KEY TERMS REVIEW QUESTIONS REVIEW PROBLEMS ADDITIONAL EXERCISES ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 22 Carbohydrates 22.1 Introduction to carbohydrates 22.2 Monosaccharides Stereoisomerism Fischer projections D- and L-monosaccharides Amino sugars Physical properties 22.3 The cyclic structure of monosaccharides Haworth projections Conformation representations Mutarotation 22.4 Reactions of monosaccharides Formation of glycosides (acetals) Reduction to alditols Oxidation to aldonic acids (reducing sugars) Oxidation to uronic acids L-ascorbic acid (vitamin C) 22.5 Disaccharides and oligosaccharides Sucrose Lactose Maltose 22.6 Polysaccharides Starch: amylose and amylopectin Glycogen Cellulose SUMMARY KEY CONCEPTS AND EQUATIONS KEY TERMS REVIEW QUESTIONS REVIEW PROBLEMS ADDITIONAL EXERCISES ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 23 Carboxylic acids and their derivatives 23.1 Structure and bonding Carboxylic acids Acid halides Acid anhydrides Esters of carboxylic acids Amides of carboxylic acids 23.2 Nomenclature Carboxylic acids Acid halides Acid anhydrides Esters and lactones Amides and lactams 23.3 Physical properties 23.4 Preparation of carboxylic acids Oxidation of primary alcohols and aldehydes Oxidation of alkylbenzenes Carbonation of Grignard reagents Formation and hydrolysis of nitriles Hydrolysis of carboxylic acid derivatives 23.5 Reactions of carboxylic acids and derivatives Acidity Reaction with bases Nucleophilic acyl substitution Acid halide formation Reactions with alcohols Reaction with water: hydrolysis Reactions with ammonia and amines Reduction Esters with Grignard reagents Interconversion of functional derivatives 23.6 Triglycerides Fatty acids Physical properties Reduction of fatty-acid chains Rancidification of fats and oils Soaps and detergents SUMMARY KEY CONCEPTS AND EQUATIONS KEY TERMS REVIEW QUESTIONS REVIEW PROBLEMS ADDITIONAL EXERCISES ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 24 Amino acids, peptides and proteins 24.1 Amino acids Chirality Protein-derived amino acids Some other common amino acids 24.2 Acid–base properties of amino acids Acidic and basic groups of amino acids Titration of amino acids Amino acid charge at physiological pH Isoelectric point Electrophoresis 24.3 Peptides, polypeptides and proteins 24.4 Primary structure of polypeptides and proteins Amino acid analysis Sequence analysis 24.5 Three-dimensional shapes of polypeptides and proteins Geometry of a peptide bond Secondary structure Tertiary structure Quaternary structure 24.6 Denaturing proteins SUMMARY KEY CONCEPTS AND EQUATIONS KEY TERMS REVIEW QUESTIONS REVIEW PROBLEMS ADDITIONAL EXERCISES ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 25 The chemistry of DNA 25.1 Nucleosides and nucleotides 25.2 The structure of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) Primary structure: the covalent backbone Secondary structure: the double helix Tertiary structure: supercoiled DNA DNA replication 25.3 Ribonucleic acid (RNA) Ribosomal RNA Transfer RNA Messenger RNA 25.4 The genetic code Triplet nature of the code Deciphering the genetic code Properties of the genetic code Polypeptide synthesis SUMMARY KEY CONCEPTS AND EQUATIONS KEY TERMS REVIEW QUESTIONS REVIEW PROBLEMS ADDITIONAL EXERCISES ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 26 Polymers 26.1 The architecture of polymers 26.2 Polymer notation and nomenclature 26.3 Formation of polymers Condensation or step-growth polymers Addition or chain-growth polymers 26.4 Silicon polymers 26.5 Recycling plastics SUMMARY KEY CONCEPTS AND EQUATIONS KEY TERMS REVIEW QUESTIONS REVIEW PROBLEMS ADDITIONAL EXERCISES ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 27 Nuclear chemistry 27.1 Nuclear stability 27.2 Unstable nuclei Alpha decay Beta decay Gamma decay Positron emission Neutron emission Electron capture Rates of radioactive decay 27.3 Synthesis of new elements 27.4 Radioactive dating methods 14C dating 27.5 Applications of nuclear processes Nuclear fission Nuclear fusion Nuclear medicine SUMMARY KEY CONCEPTS AND EQUATIONS KEY TERMS REVIEW QUESTIONS REVIEW PROBLEMS ADDITIONAL EXERCISES ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Appendices Appendix A Thermodynamic data for selected elements, compounds and ions (25°C) Appendix B Average bond enthalpies (25°C) Appendix C Solubility products (25°C) Appendix D Cumulative formation constants of complexes (25°C) Appendix E Acidity and basicity constants for weak acids and bases (25°C) Appendix F Standard reduction potentials (25°C) Appendix G Ionisation energies and electron affinities of the first 36 elements at 25°C Appendix H Characteristic infrared absorption frequencies Appendix I Periodic table of the elements Appendix J Molar masses of the elements Appendix K Some important organic functional groups Appendix L A selection of interconversions possible for some of the simpler functional groups Appendix M Glossary of equations Index EULA
