Chemical Technology: From Principles to Products

Cover
Title Page
Copyright
Contents
Preface of First Edition (and Guidelines How to Use This Textbook)
Why a Second Edition?
Notation
Chapter 1 Introduction
	1.1 What Is Chemical Technology?
	1.2 The Chemical Industry
	1.3 The Changing Global Economic Map
Chapter 2 Chemical Aspects of Industrial Chemistry
	2.1 Stability and Reactivity of Chemical Bonds
		2.1.1 Factors that Influence the Electronic Nature of Bonds and Atoms
		2.1.2 Steric Effects
		2.1.3 Classification of Reagents
	2.2 General Classification of Reactions
		2.2.1 Acid–Base‐Catalyzed Reactions
		2.2.2 Reactions via Free Radicals
		2.2.3 Nucleophilic Substitution Reactions
		2.2.4 Reactions via Carbocations
		2.2.5 Electrophilic Substitution Reactions at Aromatic Compounds
		2.2.6 Electrophilic Addition Reactions
		2.2.7 Nucleophilic Addition Reactions
		2.2.8 Asymmetric Synthesis
	2.3 Catalysis
		2.3.1 Introduction and General Aspects
		2.3.2 Homogeneous, Heterogeneous, and Biocatalysis
		2.3.3 Production and Characterization of Heterogeneous Catalysts
		2.3.4 Deactivation of Catalysts
		2.3.5 Future Trends in Catalysis Research
Chapter 3 Thermal and Mechanical Unit Operations
	3.1 Properties of Gases and Liquids
		3.1.1 Ideal and Real Gas
		3.1.2 Heat Capacities and the Joule–Thomson Effect
		3.1.3 Physical Transformations of Pure Substances: Vaporization and Melting
		3.1.4 Transport Properties (Diffusivity, Viscosity, Heat Conduction)
			3.1.4.1 Basic Equations for Transfer of Heat, Mass, and Momentum
			3.1.4.2 Transport Coefficients of Gases
			3.1.4.3 Transport Coefficients of Liquids
	3.2 Heat and Mass Transfer in Chemical Engineering
		3.2.1 Heat Transport
			3.2.1.1 Heat Conduction
			3.2.1.2 Heat Transfer by Convection (Heat Transfer Coefficients)
			3.2.1.3 Boiling Heat Transfer
			3.2.1.4 Heat Transfer by Radiation
			3.2.1.5 Transient Heat Transfer by Conduction and Convection
		3.2.2 Mass Transport
			3.2.2.1 Forced Flow in Empty Tubes and Hydrodynamic Entrance Region
			3.2.2.2 Steady‐State and Transient Diffusive Mass Transfer
			3.2.2.3 Diffusion in Porous Solids
	3.3 Thermal Unit Operations
		3.3.1 Heat Exchangers (Recuperators and Regenerators)
		3.3.2 Distillation
			3.3.2.1 Distillation Principles
			3.3.2.2 Design of Distillation Columns (Ideal Mixtures)
			3.3.2.3 Azeotropic, Extractive, and Pressure Swing Distillation
			3.3.2.4 Reactive Distillation
		3.3.3 Absorption (Gas Scrubbing)
			3.3.3.1 Absorption Principles
			3.3.3.2 Design of Absorption Columns
		3.3.4 Liquid–Liquid Extraction
			3.3.4.1 Extraction Principles
			3.3.4.2 Design of Extraction Processes
		3.3.5 Adsorption
			3.3.5.1 Adsorption Equilibrium and Adsorption Isotherms
			3.3.5.2 Adsorption Kinetics (Single Particle)
			3.3.5.3 Design of Adsorption Processes
		3.3.6 Fluid–Solid Extraction
			3.3.6.1 Principles of Fluid–Solid Extraction
			3.3.6.2 Design of Fluid–Solid Extractions
		3.3.7 Crystallization
			3.3.7.1 Ideal Binary Eutectic Phase System
			3.3.7.2 Ideal Binary Phase System with Both Solids Completely Soluble in One Another
		3.3.8 Separation by Membranes
			3.3.8.1 Principles of Membrane Separation
			3.3.8.2 Applications of Membrane Separation Processes
	3.4 Mechanical Unit Operations
		3.4.1 Conveyance of Fluids
			3.4.1.1 Pressure Loss in Empty Tubes
			3.4.1.2 Pressure Loss in Fixed, Fluidized, and Entrained Beds
			3.4.1.3 Compressors and Pumps
		3.4.2 Contacting and Mixing of Fluids
		3.4.3 Crushing and Screening of Solids
			3.4.3.1 Particle Size Reduction
			3.4.3.2 Particle Size Analysis
			3.4.3.3 Screening and Classification of Particles (Size Separation)
			3.4.3.4 Solid–Solid Separation (Sorting of Different Solids)
		3.4.4 Separation of Solids from Fluids
			3.4.4.1 Filtration
			3.4.4.2 Separation of Solids from Fluids by Sedimentation
			3.4.4.3 Screening and Classification of Particles (Size Separation)
Chapter 4 Chemical Reaction Engineering
	4.1 Main Aspects and Basic Definitions of Chemical Reaction Engineering
		4.1.1 Design Aspects and Scale‐up Dimensions of Chemical Reactors
		4.1.2 Speed of Chemical and Biochemical Reactions
		4.1.3 Influence of Reactor Type on Productivity
		4.1.4 Terms Used to Characterize the Composition of a Reaction Mixture
		4.1.5 Terms Used to Quantify the Result of a Chemical Conversion
		4.1.6 Reaction Time and Residence Time
		4.1.7 Space Velocity and Space–Time Yield
	4.2 Chemical Thermodynamics
		4.2.1 Introduction and Perfect Gas Equilibria
		4.2.2 Real Gas Equilibria
		4.2.3 Equilibrium of Liquid–Liquid Reactions
		4.2.4 Equilibrium of Gas–Solid Reactions
		4.2.5 Calculation of Simultaneous Equilibria
	4.3 Kinetics of Homogeneous Reactions
		4.3.1 Rate Equation: Influence of Temperature and Reaction Order
			4.3.1.1 First‐Order Reaction
			4.3.1.2 Reaction of nth Order
			4.3.1.3 Second‐Order Reaction
		4.3.2 Parallel Reactions and Reactions in Series
			4.3.2.1 Two Parallel First‐Order Reactions
			4.3.2.2 Two First‐Order Reactions in Series
		4.3.3 Reversible Reactions
		4.3.4 Reactions with Varying Volume (for the Example of a Batch Reactor)
	4.4 Kinetics of Fluid–Fluid Reactions
		4.4.1 Mass Transfer at a Gas–Liquid Interface (Two‐Film Theory)
		4.4.2 Mass Transfer with (Slow) Homogeneous Reaction in the Bulk Phase
		4.4.3 Mass Transfer with Fast or Instantaneous Reaction near or at the Interface
	4.5 Kinetics of Heterogeneously Catalyzed Reactions
		4.5.1 Spectrum of Factors Influencing the Rate of Heterogeneously Catalyzed Reactions
		4.5.2 Chemical Reaction Rate: Surface Kinetics
			4.5.2.1 Sorption on the Surface of Solid Catalysts
			4.5.2.2 Rate Equations for Heterogeneously Catalyzed Surface Reactions
		4.5.3 Reaction on a Solid Catalyst and Interfacial Transport of Mass and Heat
			4.5.3.1 Interaction of External Mass Transfer and Chemical Reaction
			4.5.3.2 Combined Influence of External Mass and Heat Transfer on the Effective Rate
		4.5.4 Chemical Reaction and Internal Transport of Mass and Heat
			4.5.4.1 Pore Diffusion Resistance and Effective Reaction Rate
			4.5.4.2 Combined Influence of Pore Diffusion and Intraparticle Heat Transport
		4.5.5 Simultaneous Occurrence of Interfacial and Internal Mass Transport Effects
			4.5.5.1 Irreversible First‐Order Reaction
			4.5.5.2 Reversible First‐Order Reaction with the Influence of External and Internal Mass Transfer
		4.5.6 Influence of External and Internal Mass Transfer on Selectivity
			4.5.6.1 Influence of External Mass Transfer on the Selectivity of Reactions in Series
			4.5.6.2 Influence of External Mass Transfer on the Selectivity of Parallel Reactions
			4.5.6.3 Influence of Pore Diffusion on the Selectivity of Reactions in Series
			4.5.6.4 Influence of Pore Diffusion on the Selectivity of Parallel Reactions
	4.6 Kinetics of Gas–Solid Reactions
		4.6.1 Spectrum of Factors Influencing the Rate of Gas–Solid Reactions
		4.6.2 Reaction of a Gas with a Nonporous Solid
			4.6.2.1 Survey of Border Cases and Models for a Reaction of a Gas with a Nonporous Solid
			4.6.2.2 Shrinking Nonporous Unreacted Core and Solid Product Layer
			4.6.2.3 Shrinking Nonporous Unreacted Core and Gaseous Product(s)
		4.6.3 Reaction of a Gas with a Porous Solid
			4.6.3.1 Survey of Border Cases and Models for a Reaction of a Gas with a Porous Solid
			4.6.3.2 Basic Equations for the Conversion of a Porous Solid with a Gaseous Reactant
			4.6.3.3 General Closed Solution by Combined Model (Approximation)
			4.6.3.4 Homogeneous Uniform Conversion Model (No Concentration Gradients)
			4.6.3.5 Shrinking Unreacted Core Model (Rate Determined by Diffusion Through Product Layer)
	4.7 Criteria Used to Exclude Interphase and Intraparticle Mass and Heat Transport Limitations in Gas–Solid Reactions and Heterogeneously Catalyzed Reactions
		4.7.1 External Mass Transfer Through Boundary Layer
		4.7.2 External Heat Transfer
		4.7.3 Internal Mass Transfer
		4.7.4 Internal Heat Transfer
	4.8 Kinetics of Homogeneously or Enzyme‐catalyzed Reactions
		4.8.1 Homogeneous and Enzyme Catalysis in a Single‐Phase System
		4.8.2 Homogeneous Two‐Phase Catalysis
	4.9 Kinetics of Gas–Liquid Reactions on Solid Catalysts
		4.9.1 Introduction
		4.9.2 High Concentration of Liquid Reactant B (or Pure B) and Slightly Soluble Gas
		4.9.3 Low Concentration of Liquid Reactant B and Highly Soluble Gas and/or High Pressure
	4.10 Chemical Reactors
		4.10.1 Overview of Reactor Types and Their Characteristics
			4.10.1.1 Brief Outline of Ideal and Real Reactors
			4.10.1.2 Classification of Real Reactors Based on the Mode of Operation
			4.10.1.3 Classification of Real Reactors According to the Phases
		4.10.2 Ideal Isothermal Reactors
			4.10.2.1 Well‐Mixed (Discontinuous) Isothermal Batch Reactor
			4.10.2.2 Continuously Operated Isothermal Ideal Tank Reactor
			4.10.2.3 Continuously Operated Isothermal Ideal Tubular Reactor
			4.10.2.4 Continuously Operated Isothermal Tubular Reactor with Laminar Flow
			4.10.2.5 Continuously Operated Isothermal Cascade of Tank Reactors
			4.10.2.6 Ideal Isothermal Tubular Recycle Reactor
			4.10.2.7 Comparison of the Performance of Ideal Isothermal Reactors
		4.10.3 Non‐isothermal Ideal Reactors and Criteria for Prevention of Thermal Runaway
			4.10.3.1 Well‐Mixed (Discontinuously Operated) Non‐isothermal Batch Reactor
			4.10.3.2 Continuously Operated Non‐isothermal Ideal Tank Reactor (CSTR)
			4.10.3.3 Continuously Operated Non‐isothermal Ideal Tubular Reactor
			4.10.3.4 Optimum Operating Lines of Continuous Ideal Non‐isothermal Reactors
		4.10.4 Non‐ideal Flow and Residence Time Distribution
			4.10.4.1 Pulse Experiment
			4.10.4.2 Step Experiment
		4.10.5 Tanks‐in‐Series Model
			4.10.5.1 Residence Time Distribution of a Cascade of Ideal Stirred Tank Reactors
			4.10.5.2 Calculation of Conversion by the Tanks‐in‐Series Model
		4.10.6 Dispersion Model
			4.10.6.1 Axial Dispersion and Residence Time Distribution
			4.10.6.2 Calculation of Conversion by the Dispersion Model
			4.10.6.3 Dispersion and Conversion in Empty Pipes
			4.10.6.4 Dispersion of Mass and Heat in Fixed Bed Reactors
			4.10.6.5 Radial Variations in Bed Structure: Wall Effects in Narrow Packed Beds
		4.10.7 Modeling of Fixed Bed Reactors
			4.10.7.1 Fundamental Balance Equations of Fixed Bed Reactors
			4.10.7.2 Criteria Used to Exclude a Significant Influence of Dispersion in Fixed Bed Reactors
			4.10.7.3 Radial Heat Transfer in Packed Bed Reactors and Methods to Account for This
		4.10.8 Novel Developments in Reactor Technology
			4.10.8.1 Hybrid (Multifunctional) Reactors
			4.10.8.2 Monolithic Reactors
			4.10.8.3 Microreactors
			4.10.8.4 Adiabatic Reactors with Periodic Flow Reversal
	4.11 Measurement and Evaluation of Kinetic Data
		4.11.1 Principal Methods for Determining Kinetic Data
			4.11.1.1 Microkinetics
			4.11.1.2 Macrokinetics
			4.11.1.3 Laboratory Reactors
			4.11.1.4 Pros and Cons of Integral and Differential Method
		4.11.2 Evaluation of Kinetic Data (Reaction Orders, Rate Constants)
		4.11.3 Laboratory‐Scale Reactors for Kinetic Measurements
		4.11.4 Transport Limitations in Experimental Catalytic Reactors
			4.11.4.1 Ideal Plug Flow Behavior: Criteria to Exclude the Influence of Dispersion
			4.11.4.2 Gradientless Ideal Particle Behavior: Criteria to Exclude the Influence of Interfacial and Internal Transport of Mass and Heat
			4.11.4.3 Criterion to Exclude the Influence of the Dilution of a Catalytic Fixed Bed
		4.11.5 Case Studies for the Evaluation of Kinetic Data
			4.11.5.1 Case Study I: Thermal Conversion of Naphthalene
			4.11.5.2 Case Study II: Heterogeneously Catalyzed Hydrogenation of Hexene
			4.11.5.3 Case Study III: Heterogeneously Catalyzed Multiphase Reaction
			4.11.5.4 Case Study IV: Non‐isothermal Oxidation of Carbon Nanotubes and Fibers
Chapter 5 Raw Materials, Products, Environmental Aspects, and Costs of Chemical Technology
	5.1 Raw Materials of Industrial Organic Chemistry and Energy Sources
		5.1.1 Energy Consumption, Reserves, and Resources of Fossil Fuels and Renewables
			5.1.1.1 Global and Regional Energy Consumption and Fuel Shares
			5.1.1.2 World Energy Consumption and World Population
			5.1.1.3 Economic and Social Aspects of Energy Consumption
			5.1.1.4 Conventional and Non‐conventional Fossil Fuels
			5.1.1.5 Nuclear Power
			5.1.1.6 Renewable Energy
			5.1.1.7 Energy Mix of the Future
			5.1.1.8 Global Warming
			5.1.1.9 Ecological Footprint and Energy Consumption
			5.1.1.10 Energy Demand and Energy Mix to Reconcile the World\'s Pursuit of Welfare and Happiness with the Necessity to Preserve the Integrity of the Biosphere
		5.1.2 Composition of Fossil Fuels and Routes for the Production of Synthetic Fuels
		5.1.3 Natural Gas and Other Technical Gases
			5.1.3.1 Properties of Natural Gas and Other Technical Gases
			5.1.3.2 Conditioning of Natural Gas, Processes, and Products Based on Natural Gas
		5.1.4 Crude Oil and Refinery Products
			5.1.4.1 Production, Reserves, and Price of Crude Oil
			5.1.4.2 Properties of Crude Oil
			5.1.4.3 Properties of Major Refinery Products
			5.1.4.4 Refinery Processes
		5.1.5 Coal and Coal Products
			5.1.5.1 Properties of Coal and Other Solid Fuels
			5.1.5.2 Processes and Products Based on Coal
		5.1.6 Renewable Raw Materials
			5.1.6.1 Base Chemicals from Renewable Raw Materials
			5.1.6.2 Fats and Vegetable Oils
			5.1.6.3 Carbohydrates
			5.1.6.4 Extracts and Excreta from Plants
		5.1.7 Energy Consumption in Human History
			5.1.7.1 Time Travel No. 1: Global Energy Consumption from 10 000 BCE Until 2010
			5.1.7.2 Time Travel No. 2: From Industrial Revolution to Modern Energy Systems
			5.1.7.3 Time Travel No. 3: Building of Khufu\'s Giant Pyramid in Ancient Egypt
		5.1.8 Power‐to‐X and Hydrogen Storage Technologies
			5.1.8.1 Hydrogen: Compressed and Cryogenic
			5.1.8.2 Chemical Hydrogen Storage: General Considerations in Gaseous Compounds
			5.1.8.3 Chemical Hydrogen Storage in Gaseous Compounds
			5.1.8.4 Chemical Hydrogen Storage in Liquid Compounds
	5.2 Inorganic Products and Raw Materials
		5.2.1 Nonmetallic Inorganic Materials
		5.2.2 Metals
	5.3 Organic Intermediates and Final Products
		5.3.1 Alkanes and Syngas
		5.3.2 Alkenes, Alkynes, and Aromatic Hydrocarbons
		5.3.3 Organic Intermediates Functionalized with Oxygen, Nitrogen, or Halogens
			5.3.3.1 Alcohols
			5.3.3.2 Ethers
			5.3.3.3 Epoxides
			5.3.3.4 Aldehydes
			5.3.3.5 Ketones
			5.3.3.6 Acids
			5.3.3.7 Amines and Nitrogen‐Containing Intermediates
			5.3.3.8 Lactams, Nitriles, and Isocyanates
			5.3.3.9 Halogenated Organic Intermediates
		5.3.4 Polymers
			5.3.4.1 Polyolefins and Polydienes
			5.3.4.2 Vinyl Polymers and Polyacrylates
			5.3.4.3 Polyesters, Polyamides, and Polyurethanes
		5.3.5 Detergents and Surfactants
			5.3.5.1 Structure and Properties of Detergent and Surfactants
			5.3.5.2 Cationic Detergents
			5.3.5.3 Anionic Detergents
			5.3.5.4 Nonionic Detergents
		5.3.6 Fine Chemicals
			5.3.6.1 Dyes and Colorants
			5.3.6.2 Adhesives
			5.3.6.3 Fragrance and Flavor Chemicals
			5.3.6.4 Pesticides
			5.3.6.5 Vitamins, Food, and Animal Feed Additives
			5.3.6.6 Pharmaceuticals
	5.4 Environmental Aspects of Chemical Technology
		5.4.1 Air Pollution
		5.4.2 Water Consumption and Water Footprint
			5.4.2.1 Water Sources and Water Consumption
			5.4.2.2 Water Footprint and Water Availability
		5.4.3 Plastic Production, Pollution, and Recycling of Plastic Waste
			5.4.3.1 Global Situation
			5.4.3.2 Plastic Production and Recycling of Plastic Waste in Europe
		5.4.4 “Green Chemistry” and Quantifying the Environmental Impact of Chemical Processes
	5.5 Production Costs of Fuels and Chemicals Manufacturing
		5.5.1 Price of Chemical Products
		5.5.2 Investment Costs
		5.5.3 Variable Costs
		5.5.4 Operating Costs (Fixed and Variable Costs)
Chapter 6 Examples of Industrial Processes
	6.1 Ammonia Synthesis
		6.1.1 Historical Development of Haber–Bosch Process
		6.1.2 Thermodynamics of Ammonia Synthesis
		6.1.3 Kinetics and Mechanism of Ammonia Synthesis
		6.1.4 Technical Ammonia Process and Synthesis Reactors
	6.2 Syngas and Hydrogen
		6.2.1 Options to Produce Syngas and Hydrogen (Overview)
		6.2.2 Syngas from Solid Fuels (Coal, Biomass)
			6.2.2.1 Basic Principles and Reactions of Syngas Production from Solid Fuels
			6.2.2.2 Syngas Production by Gasification of Solid Fuels
			6.2.2.3 Case Study: Syngas and Hydrogen by Gasification of Biomass
		6.2.3 Syngas by Partial Oxidation of Heavy Oils
		6.2.4 Syngas by Steam Reforming of Natural Gas
	6.3 Sulfuric Acid
		6.3.1 Reactions and Thermodynamics of Sulfuric Acid Production
		6.3.2 Production of SO2
		6.3.3 SO2 Conversion into SO3
		6.3.4 Sulfuric Acid Process
	6.4 Nitric Acid
		6.4.1 Reactions and Thermodynamics of Nitric Acid Production
		6.4.2 Kinetics of Catalytic Oxidation of Ammonia
			6.4.2.1 Catalytic Oxidation of Ammonia on a Single Pt Wire for Cross‐Flow of the Gas
			6.4.2.2 Catalytic Oxidation of Ammonia in an Industrial Reactor, That Is, on a Series of Pt Gauzes
		6.4.3 NO Oxidation
		6.4.4 Nitric Acid Processes
	6.5 Coke and Steel
		6.5.1 Steel Production (Overview)
			6.5.1.1 Steel Production Based on the Blast Furnace Route
			6.5.1.2 Steel Production Based on Scrap and Direct Reduced Iron (DRI)
		6.5.2 Production of Blast Furnace Coke
			6.5.2.1 Inspection of Transient Process of Coking of Coal
			6.5.2.2 Case I: Negligible Thermal Resistance of Coal/Coke Charge
			6.5.2.3 Case II: Negligible Thermal Resistance of Heated Brick Wall
			6.5.2.4 Case III: Thermal Resistances of Brick Wall and Coal Charge Have to Be Considered
		6.5.3 Production of Pig Iron in a Blast Furnace
			6.5.3.1 Coke Consumption of a Blast Furnace: Historical Development and Theoretical Minimum
			6.5.3.2 Residence Time Distribution of a Blast Furnace
	6.6 Basic Chemicals by Steam Cracking
		6.6.1 General and Mechanistic Aspects
		6.6.2 Factors that Influence the Product Distribution
			6.6.2.1 Influence of Applied Feedstock
			6.6.2.2 Influence of the Temperature in the Cracking Oven
			6.6.2.3 Influence of Residence Time
			6.6.2.4 Influence of Hydrocarbon Partial Pressure in the Cracking Oven
		6.6.3 Industrial Steam Cracker Process
		6.6.4 Economic Aspects of the Steam Cracker Process
	6.7 Liquid Fuels by Cracking of Heavy Oils
		6.7.1 Thermal Cracking (Delayed Coking)
		6.7.2 Fluid Catalytic Cracking (FCC Process)
	6.8 Clean Liquid Fuels by Hydrotreating
		6.8.1 History, Current Status, and Perspective of Hydrotreating
		6.8.2 Thermodynamics and Kinetics of Hydrodesulfurization (HDS)
		6.8.3 Hydrodesulfurization Process and Reaction Engineering Aspects
	6.9 High‐Octane Gasoline by Catalytic Reforming
		6.9.1 Reactions and Thermodynamics of Catalytic Reforming
		6.9.2 Reforming Catalyst
		6.9.3 Process of Catalytic Reforming
		6.9.4 Deactivation and Regeneration of a Reforming Catalyst
			6.9.4.1 Coke Burn‐Off Within a Single Catalyst Particle
			6.9.4.2 Regeneration in a Technical Fixed Bed Reactor
	6.10 Refinery Alkylation
		6.10.1 Reaction and Reaction Mechanism of Refinery Alkylation
		6.10.2 Alkylation Feedstock and Products
		6.10.3 Process Variables
			6.10.3.1 Reaction Temperature
			6.10.3.2 Acid Strength and Composition
			6.10.3.3 Isobutane Concentration
			6.10.3.4 Effect of Mixing
		6.10.4 Commercial Alkylation Processes
			6.10.4.1 Commercial Processes Using Hydrofluoric Acid as Liquid Catalyst
			6.10.4.2 Commercial Processes Using Sulfuric Acid as Liquid Catalyst
			6.10.4.3 Comparison of Commercially Applied Alkylation Processes
	6.11 Fuels and Chemicals from Syngas: Methanol and Fischer–Tropsch Synthesis
		6.11.1 Fischer–Tropsch Synthesis
			6.11.1.1 Reactions and Mechanisms of Fischer–Tropsch Synthesis
			6.11.1.2 Intrinsic and Effective Reaction Rate of Fischer–Tropsch Synthesis
			6.11.1.3 History, Current Status, and Perspectives of Fischer–Tropsch Synthesis
			6.11.1.4 Fischer–Tropsch Processes and Reactors
			6.11.1.5 Modeling of a Multi‐tubular Fixed Bed Fischer–Tropsch Reactor
		6.11.2 Methanol Synthesis
			6.11.2.1 Thermodynamics of Methanol Synthesis
			6.11.2.2 Catalysts for Methanol Synthesis
			6.11.2.3 Processes and Synthesis Reactors
	6.12 Ethylene and Propylene Oxide
		6.12.1 Commercial Production of Ethylene Oxide
			6.12.1.1 Chlorohydrin Process
			6.12.1.2 Direct Oxidation of Ethylene
			6.12.1.3 Products Made of Ethylene Oxide
		6.12.2 Commercial Production of Propylene Oxide
			6.12.2.1 Chlorohydrin Process
			6.12.2.2 Indirect Oxidation of Propylene
			6.12.2.3 Products Made of Propylene Oxide
	6.13 Catalytic Oxidation of o‐Xylene to Phthalic Acid Anhydride
		6.13.1 Production and Use of Phthalic Anhydride (Overview)
		6.13.2 Design and Simulation of a Multi‐tubular Reactor for Oxidation of o‐Xylene to PA
	6.14 Hydroformylation (Oxosynthesis)
		6.14.1 Industrial Relevance of Hydroformylation
		6.14.2 Hydroformylation Catalysis
		6.14.3 Current Hydroformylation Catalyst and Process Technologies
		6.14.4 Advanced Catalyst Immobilization Technologies for Hydroformylation Catalysis
			6.14.4.1 Immobilization of Homogeneous Hydroformylation Catalysts on Solid Surfaces by Covalent Anchoring
			6.14.4.2 Catalyst Separation by Size Exclusion Membranes
			6.14.4.3 Catalyst Immobilization in Liquid–Liquid Biphasic Reaction Systems Using Fluorous Phases: Supercritical CO2 or Ionic Liquids
			6.14.4.4 Supported Liquid Hydroformylation Catalysis
	6.15 Acetic Acid
		6.15.1 Acetic Acid Synthesis via Acetaldehyde Oxidation
		6.15.2 Acetic Acid Synthesis via Butane or Naphtha Oxidation
		6.15.3 Acetic Acid Synthesis via Methanol Carbonylation
			6.15.3.1 BASF High‐Pressure Process
			6.15.3.2 Monsanto Low‐Pressure Process
			6.15.3.3 Cativa Process
		6.15.4 Other Technologies for the Commercial Production of Acetic Acid
			6.15.4.1 Direct Ethylene Oxidation
			6.15.4.2 Acetic Acid Production by Ethane and Methane Oxidation
	6.16 Ethylene Oligomerization Processes for Linear 1‐Alkene Production
		6.16.1 Industrial Relevance of 1‐Olefins
		6.16.2 Aluminum‐Alkyl‐Based “Aufbaureaktion” (Growth Reaction)
		6.16.3 Nickel‐Catalyzed Oligomerization: Shell Higher Olefin Process (SHOP)
		6.16.4 Metallacycle Mechanism for Selective Ethylene Oligomerization
	6.17 Production of Fine Chemicals (Example Menthol)
		6.17.1 Menthol and Menthol Production (Overview)
		6.17.2 Thermodynamics and Kinetics of Epimerization of Menthol Isomers
		6.17.3 Influence of Mass Transfer on the Epimerization of Menthol Isomers
		6.17.4 Epimerization of Menthol Isomers in Technical Reactors
	6.18 Treatment of Exhaust Gases from Mobile and Stationary Sources
		6.18.1 Automotive Emission Control
			6.18.1.1 Emission Standards and Primary Measures for Reduction of Engine Emissions
			6.18.1.2 Catalytic Converters for Reduction of Car Engine Emissions
		6.18.2 Selective Catalytic Reduction (SCR) of NOx from Flue Gas from Power Plants
			6.18.2.1 Treatment of Flue Gas from Power Plants (Overview)
			6.18.2.2 Formation of Nitrogen Oxides During Fuel Combustion in Power Plants
			6.18.2.3 Catalysts and Reactors for Selective Catalytic Reduction of NOx
			6.18.2.4 Reaction Chemistry of Selective Catalytic Reduction of NOx
			6.18.2.5 Reaction Kinetics and Design of SCR Reactor
	6.19 Industrial Electrolysis
		6.19.1 Electrochemical Kinetics and Thermodynamics
			6.19.1.1 Faraday\'s Law and Current Efficiency
			6.19.1.2 Electrochemical Potentials
			6.19.1.3 Galvanic and Electrolysis Cells, Nernst\'s Law
			6.19.1.4 Standard Electrode Potentials
			6.19.1.5 Electrical Work and Thermoneutral Enthalpy Voltage
			6.19.1.6 Overpotentials
		6.19.2 Chlorine and Sodium Hydroxide
			6.19.2.1 Applications of Chlorine and Sodium Hydroxide
			6.19.2.2 Processes of Chlor‐Alkali Electrolysis
			6.19.2.3 Diaphragm Process
			6.19.2.4 Mercury Cell Process
			6.19.2.5 Membrane Process
		6.19.3 Electrolysis of Water
		6.19.4 Electrometallurgy (Purification of Metals by Electrorefining)
			6.19.4.1 Electrolytic Refining in Aqueous Solution
			6.19.4.2 Fused Salt Electrolysis (Production of Aluminum)
	6.20 Polyethene Production
		6.20.1 Polyethene Classification and Industrial Use
		6.20.2 General Characteristics of PE Production Processes
			6.20.2.1 Exothermicity of the Reaction and Thermal Stability of Ethene
			6.20.2.2 Purity of Ethene
		6.20.3 Reaction Mechanism and Process Equipment for the Production of LDPE
		6.20.4 Catalysts for the Production of HDPE and LLDPE
			6.20.4.1 Ziegler Catalyst Systems
			6.20.4.2 Phillips Catalyst Systems
			6.20.4.3 Single‐Site Metallocene Catalyst Systems
		6.20.5 Production Processes for HDPE and LLDPE
		6.20.6 PE Production Economics and Modern Developments in PE Production
	6.21 Titanium Dioxide
		6.21.1 Production and Use of Titanium Dioxide (Overview)
		6.21.2 Sulfate Process for Production of Titanium Dioxide
		6.21.3 Chloride Process for Production of Titanium Dioxide
	6.22 Silicon
		6.22.1 Production and Use of Silicon (Overview)
		6.22.2 Carbothermic Reduction of Silica
		6.22.3 Refining, Casting, and Crushing of Metallurgical Grade Silicon
		6.22.4 Economics of the Metallurgical Grade Silicon Production
		6.22.5 Production of Photovoltaic Grade Silicon by Purification of Metallurgical Grade Silicon
			6.22.5.1 Production of Photovoltaic Grade Silicon by the Siemens Process
			6.22.5.2 Fluidized Bed Reactor Process for Production of Photovoltaic Grade Silicon
	6.23 Polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE)
		6.23.1 Production and Use of PTFE (Overview)
		6.23.2 Process for Production of PTFE
		6.23.3 Treatment of PTFE Waste
			6.23.3.1 Incineration and Disposal of PTFE Waste
			6.23.3.2 Reprocessing of PTFE Waste
			6.23.3.3 Chemical Recycling of PTFE Waste
	6.24 Production of Amino Acids by Fermentation
		6.24.1 General Aspects
		6.24.2 Overview of the Methods Applied for Industrial Amino Acid Production
			6.24.2.1 Amino Acid Extraction from Protein Hydrolysates
			6.24.2.2 Chemical Synthesis
			6.24.2.3 Biotechnological Processes
		6.24.3 Amino Acid Fermentation
			6.24.3.1 Bacteria for Amino Acid Production and Strain Development
			6.24.3.2 Substrates
			6.24.3.3 Fermentation Process
			6.24.3.4 Downstream
References
Index
EULA