Chemical risk assessment : a manual for REACH

Content: List of Figures xv    List of Tables xvii     List of Contributors xix     Introduction xxi     1. Introduction: Policy and Scientific Context of Chemicals Risk and Risk Management 1     1.1 Overview of the Risk Assessment of Chemical Substances 4     1.2 Chemical Hazard and Risk Programmes 5     1.2.1 REACH Overview 5     1.2.2 Registration 6     1.2.3 Evaluation 8     1.2.4 Authorisation and Restriction 11     1.2.5 Hazard and Risk Communication 14     1.2.6 Hazards 16     1.2.7 Overview of Types of Exposure 17     1.2.8 Overview of Risk Characterisation 19     1.2.9 Successful Interaction with REACH: Registration, Evaluation and Authorisation 21     1.2.10 Regulation and Assessment of Hazardous Chemicals Outside of the European Union 24     2. Roles and Responsibilities in REACH 39     2.1 The Structure and Responsibilities of the Authorities 39     2.1.1 Role of the ECHA 39     2.1.2 The Role of the Member State Committee (MSC) 40     2.1.3 The Role of the Member State Competent Authorities (MSCA) 40     2.2 Forum Enforcement Project     REACH-EN-FORCE-1 41     2.3 Future Aims of the HSE (an Example of a ECHA-Related Authority Acting in the UK) 41     2.4 What Does REACH Require as Regards Enforcement? 41     2.5 What Powers Do Enforcing Authorities Have? 42     2.6 The Responsibilities of Industry 42     2.6.1 Responsibilities of the Manufacturer 42     2.6.2 Responsibilities of the Importer 43     2.6.3 The Only Representative 43     2.6.4 Responsibilities of the Downstream User 43     2.7 Communication in the Supply Chain and with Regulators 44     2.7.1 Use Descriptor System 44     3. Control of Chemicals     Legislative and Policy Context 57     3.1 How EU Chemical Legislation Evolved 57     3.2 Air Quality Regulations 63     3.3 Water Framework Directive 64     3.4 Carcinogens at Work 65     3.5 Cosmetics 66     3.6 Biocidal and Plant Protection Products 67     3.7 Nationally (UK)-Implemented Legislative and Policy Frameworks 68     3.7.1 Workplace Exposure 68     3.7.2 Control of Substances Hazardous to Health Regulations (COSHH) 2002 69     3.7.3 Dangerous Substances and Explosive Atmospheres Regulations (DSEAR) 2002 72     3.8 UK Environmental Regulation 74     3.8.1 Overview and IPPC 74     3.8.2 Waste (England and Wales) Regulations 2011 SI 988 75     3.8.3 Water Legislation in the UK 75     3.8.4 Directive 2006/118/EC on the Protection of Groundwater against Pollution and Deterioration 77     3.8.5 Groundwater (England and Wales) Regulations 2009 (SI 2009 No. 2902) 77     3.8.6 Air Legislation in the UK 77     4. Identification of Substances for REACH     Practicalities 81     4.1 Substance Identification 81     4.1.1 Types of Substances 82     4.1.2 Mono-Constituent Substances 82     4.1.3 Multi-Constituent Substances (MCSs) 82     4.1.4 Substances with Unknown or Variable Composition, or of Biological Origin (UVCBs) 82     4.1.5 Nanomaterials 83     4.1.6 Articles 84     4.1.7 EC Number 84     4.2 Sameness 85     4.3 Essentially-Pure Substances 85     4.4 Approaching the Substance Data Set     Understanding the Substance 86     5. Physico-Chemical Properties for REACH     Purpose and Practicalities 89     5.1 Physico-Chemical Properties 89     5.2 Strategy in Physico-Chemical Testing Plans 91     5.2.1 Tier 1 Tests 91     5.2.2 Tier 2 Tests 92     5.2.3 Tier 3 Tests 93     5.3 Difficult-to-Measure Substances 94     5.3.1 Multiconstituent or UVCB Substances (Mixtures) 94     5.3.2 Poorly Soluble Substances 94     5.3.3 Volatile Substances 94     5.3.4 Unstable Substances Either by Hydrolysis, Photolysis or Oxidation 94     5.3.5 Ionisable Substances 95     5.3.6 Surface Active Substances 95     5.4 Hazardous Physico-Chemical Data 95     5.5 Relationship between Physico-Chemical Tests 95     5.6 Application of Physico-Chemical Test Data 96     5.7 Can Physico-Chemical Tests Be Omitted? 96     5.8 (Q)SAR and Physico-Chemical Tests 97     5.9 (Quantitative) Structure-Activity Relationships ((Q)SAR) 97     6. Assessing and Documenting the Intrinsic Properties of Substances in REACH 103     6.1 Introduction to REACH Data Requirements 103     6.1.1 Strictly Controlled Conditions 104     6.2 Hazards 108     6.3 PBT 108     6.4 Equivalent Concern 109     6.4.1 Adversity 109     6.4.2 Mode of Action 110     6.5 Test Proposal Rule 110     6.6 Availability of Existing Data and Rights of Access 111     6.7 Data Reliability 111     6.8 Data Gaps     Options for Surrogate Data for Description of Hazard and Risk     Including Read-Across 111     6.9 Read-Across 113     7. Assessing Environmental Properties Data 115     7.1 Environmental Properties Data 115     7.1.1 PNECs 115     7.1.2 Classification and Labelling (C&L) 116     7.1.3 PBT 116     7.2 Environmental Fate 116     7.2.1 Degradation 117     7.2.2 Bioaccumulation 120     7.2.3 Adsorption 121     7.3 Ecotoxicology 123     7.3.1 Introduction 123     7.3.2 Hazard Assessment and Risk Characterisation 123     7.3.3 Data Review 127     7.3.4 Testing of Difficult Substances 127     7.3.5 (Q)SARs, Data Waiving and EPM 128     7.3.6 Further Testing 129     7.3.7 Toxicity to Sewage Treatment Plant Microorganisms 129     7.4 Turning Intrinsic Properties into    No-Effect    Concentrations 130     7.4.1 Selecting a Suitable Starting Point for a PNEC Calculation 131     7.4.2 Calculating a PNEC Using Assessment Factors 131     7.4.3 Calculating a PNEC Using Sensitivity Distribution 133     7.4.4 Calculating a PNEC Using Equilibrium Partitioning 133     7.4.5 Intermittent versus Continuous Releases 134     8. Environmental Exposure 137     8.1 Substance Identity and Approach to Exposure Assessment 137     8.2 Characterising Releases 138     8.2.1 Evaluating Use Pattern 138     8.3 Evaluating Releases 139     8.3.1 Reality Checking     Top Down and Bottom Up 141     8.4 Documentation for the Registration 142     8.4.1 Uncertainty 142     8.5 Local Scale Releases 142     8.5.1 Site Size 142     8.5.2 Site Inspections 143     8.6 Exposure Assessment     Models or Measurements? 143     8.6.1 Using Measurements 143     8.6.2 Using Models 145     8.6.3 Models or Measurements     Recommended Approach 145     8.6.4 Tools 145     8.7 Water 146     8.7.1 Release via Waste-Water 146     8.7.2 River Environment 148     8.7.3 Marine Environment 149     8.7.4 Sediments 149     8.8 Soil 149     8.8.1 WWTP Sludge and Agricultural Soil 149     8.8.2 Deposition 149     8.8.3 Biodegradation in Soil 150     8.8.4 Crops and Grassland 150     8.8.5 Industrial Soil 150     8.9 Air 150     8.9.1 Air in the Standard PEC Models 150     8.9.2 Ozone Depletion and Other Specific Effects 150     8.9.3 Long Range Pollutants 151     8.10 The Food Chain 151     8.10.1 Biomagnification 151     8.10.2 Secondary Poisoning 151     9. Assessing the Hazards to Human Health from Chemicals 153     9.1 Mammalian Toxicology 153     9.2 Exposure Routes and Local/Systemic Effect Types 153     9.3 Acute and Chronic Effects 154     9.4 Influences on Toxicity 154     9.5 How Chemicals Cause Harm 155     9.5.1 Asphyxiants 155     9.5.2 Narcotics 155     9.5.3 Irritants and Corrosives 155     9.5.4 Sensitisation (Allergic Reactions) 156     9.5.5 Carcinogenicity 156     9.5.6 Genotoxic Effects 157     9.5.7 Reproductive and Developmental Effects 157     9.5.8 Target Organ Effects 157     9.6 Toxicokinetics 157     9.7 Toxicological Testing 158     9.7.1 Data Gaps 159     9.7.2 Data Waiving 159     9.7.3 Acute Toxicity Studies 159     9.7.4 Short-Term, Repeated Dose Studies 160     9.7.5 Long-Term (Chronic) Studies 160     9.7.6 Other Systemic Effects 161     9.7.7 Local Effects 162     9.8 Genetic Toxicology 162     9.8.1 Introduction 162     9.8.2 Hazard Assessment 163     9.8.3 Risk Assessment 166     9.9 Turning Intrinsic Properties into    No-Effect    Levels 166     9.9.1 Special Cases 169     10. Human Exposure to Chemicals 171     10.1 Exposure 171     10.2 Exposure to Chemicals in the Workplace 173     10.2.1 First Tier Models 173     10.2.2 Higher Tier Models 174     10.2.3 Risk Management Measures 174     10.2.4 Exposure in the Professional Use Setting 175     10.2.5 Models 176     10.2.6 Measurements 178     10.3 Risk Management Measures 179     10.4 Consumer Exposure 179     10.4.1 General Considerations for Exposure Estimation for Consumers 180     10.4.2 Tier 1 Models 180     10.4.3 Refinement of Initial Exposure Estimates, Higher Tier Models and Measurements 181     10.4.4 Risk Management Measures     Consumers 181     10.5 Indirect Exposure (Humans via the Environment) 182     10.6 Risk due to Physico-Chemical Hazard 182     11. Managing Hazard and Risk 185     11.1 Characterisation, Assessment and Management of Risk 185     11.2 What Is    Risk    under REACH? 186     11.3 What Are Risk Reduction and Risk Management? 187     11.3.1 Risk 187     11.3.2 How Can Risks Be Controlled Adequately? 189     11.4 Where Safe Levels Cannot Be Established     CMRs and PBTs (and vPvBs) 190     11.5 Responsibilities in the Supply Chain     Introduction 190     11.6 Regulatory Requirements 191     11.7 Guidance 193     11.8 The Extended Safety Data Sheet 193     11.8.1 Current issues surrounding the use of eSDS by DUs 194     11.9 When Communication Is Difficult 194     11.10 Exposure Measurements in the Workplace     Occupational Hygiene 195     11.11 Control of Environmental Releases     Abatement Techniques 196     11.11.1 Engineering Controls 196     11.11.2 Enclosure and Containment 197     11.11.3 Bunding 197     11.11.4 Dedicated Equipment 197     11.11.5 Investment and Scale of Use     Economic Viability 197     11.11.6 Waste Stream Treatments 197     11.11.7 WWTP Treatments 198     11.11.8 Custom and Practise 198     11.11.9 Handling Standards 198     11.11.10 Clean-Down Practises 198     11.12 Effectiveness of Risk Reduction     Risk Management Options 200     11.13 Types of Risk Management     in the Workplace 201     11.13.1 Options Overview 202     11.13.2 Understanding Assumptions and Critical Issues 202     11.13.3 Risk Management Measures 202     11.14 Types of Risk Management     for the Environment 203     11.14.1 Unacceptable Risk 203     11.14.2 Options Overview 203     11.14.3 When a Data Set Is Not Complete 204     11.14.4 When a Data Set Is as Complete as It Can Be 204     11.14.5 Understanding Assumptions and Critical Issues 204     11.14.6 Strategies to Reduce the Amount of Substance Released to the Environment 204     11.15 Consumer Protection 205     12. Avoiding the Use of Hazardous Substances: Substitution and Alternatives 207     12.1 Properties That Contribute to Hazard and Risk for Human Health and the Environment 209     12.2 Assessment of Alternatives     Replacement of Use 210     12.3 What Is an Alternative? 211     12.4 Analysis of Alternatives 211     12.5 Substitution     Replacement with Substances of Reduced Hazard 211     12.5.1 Examples of Voluntary Substitution 212     12.5.2 Regulation-Led Substitution     Case Studies 213     12.6 Sustainability and Green Chemistry 218     12.7 What Is Green Chemistry in Practice? Principles and Concepts 219     12.7.1 Why Is Green Chemistry Important? 220     12.7.2 Research in Green Chemistry 220     12.7.3 Substance Design 220     12.7.4 Process Design 222     13. Hazards, Risks and Impacts     The Development and Application of Frameworks for the Assessment of Risk 225     13.1 Policy Context     Risk, Hazard and the Precautionary Principle 226     13.1.1 Assessment Frameworks     Hazard and Risk and Impacts 230     13.1.2 Precaution     Where No Safe Level Can Be Established 232     13.1.3 Application of Assessment Frameworks to Human Health and Environmental Protection 234     13.2 From Hazards to Risks to Impacts     Understanding the Implications of Exposure to Dangerous Chemicals 235     13.2.1 Introduction: The Need for a Culture of Safety 236     13.2.2 Responsible Care(R) 238     13.2.3 Standards and Management Tools 239     13.2.4 Risk Control and Management 241     13.2.5 Risk Control and Management in REACH 241     13.3 Risk Management Options     REACH Processes for Control of Hazardous and Risky Substances 244     13.3.1 Restrictions and Authorisations in REACH 244     13.3.2 Restrictions 246     13.3.3 Authorisations 247     14. Socio-Economic Analysis in REACH 251     14.1 Background     the Need for and Development of Socio-Economic Analysis in the Regulation of Chemicals 253     14.2 What Is SEA and Why Is It Needed and Applied in REACH? 254     14.2.1 What Is SEA within REACH? 254     14.3 Role, Purpose and Performing an SEA in REACH 255     14.3.1 Role and Purpose of an SEA in REACH 255     14.3.2 Doing an SEA in REACH 256     14.4 The Difficulties of Moving from Risks to Impacts 256     14.5 Regulatory Processes     Who Are the Decision Makers and What Are Their Roles? 265     14.6 The Wider Benefits of Performing an SEA 265     14.7 Developments and the Future 267     15. REACH: How It Is Working and May Develop 269     15.1 Introduction 269     15.2 Experiences and Observations 269     15.2.1 Observations 270     15.3 Basics of Successful Submission 271     15.4 Testing, Prediction and Read-Across 271     15.5 The Community Rolling Action Plan 272     15.6 EU and National Responsibilities 272     15.7 Risk-Based Regulation and the Precautionary Approach 272     15.8 Higher Tiers of Assessment 273     15.9 REACH Developments 274     15.9.1 Methods of Operation and Constant Change 274     15.9.2 Improved Efficiency of Operation 275     15.9.3 Increased Scope 275     15.9.4 Policy Development on the Control of Chemicals     EU and Global Perspectives 276     15.10 Rationalising Overlap with Other Legislation 276     15.11 Scientific Developments and Challenges 278     15.12 Impact on Industry 278     15.12.1 Manufacturers and Importers 278     15.12.2 Downstream Users and Consumers 278     15.12.3 Innovation 279     15.13 ECHA Evaluation Report 2012 279     16. Resources, Official Guidance, Further Reading and Centres of Expertise 283     16.1 Introduction to Resources and Organisations 283     16.1.1 Official Journal 283     16.1.2 ECHA and REACH-IT 284     16.1.3 CEFIC and Sector Groups 285     16.1.4 IUCLID Guidance 285     16.1.5 ECETOC 286     16.1.6 OECD 286     16.1.7 EU JRC 286     16.2 Facts and Statistics 286     Appendix A Substance Classification and Labelling under REACH 317     A.1 Important Differences 319     A.1.1 Physico-Chemical Hazards 320     A.1.2 Health Hazards 320     A.1.3 Environmental Hazards 321     A.1.4 Supplementary Labelling Requirements under the CLP Regulations 321     A.2 CLP Symbols 322     A.2.1 Comparison of DSP/DPD with CLP 2008 325     A.3 Specific Target Organ Systemic Toxicity     Single Exposure 334     A.3.1 Carcinogenic Substances 335     A.3.2 Mutagenic Substances 337     A.3.3 Effect during Lactation 337     A.3.4 Aquatic Environment 338     A.3.5 Ozone 338     A.4 Harmonised Classification and Labelling 339     Appendix B Further Discussion of Substance Identification and Sameness 341     B.1 Substance Identifiers 341     B.1.1 EC Name 341     B.1.2 CAS Registry Number (CAS# or CAS No.) 341     B.1.3 SMILES 341     B.1.4 InChI 342     B.2 Substance Analysis 342     B.2.1 Sameness 343     B.2.2 Impurities 344     B.2.3 Departures from the Agreed Norm 344     B.3 Straightforward Organic Substances 345     B.3.1 Identity 345     B.3.2 Purity and Characterisation 346     B.4 Complex Organic Substances 347     B.5 Inorganic Substances 348     B.5.1 Structure 349     B.5.2 Elemental Quantification 349     B.6 Analysis of UVCBs 349     Appendix C Tools for REACH Compliance: IUCLID, Chesar and In-House Databases 351     C.1 International Uniform Chemical Information Database (IUCLID) 351     C.2 IUCLID and PPORDs 354     C.3 Submission of PPORD to ECHA 354     C.3.1 IUCLID Submission 354     C.3.2 Notification by REACH-IT 355     C.4 Chesar 356     C.4.1 Introduction 356     C.4.2 Chesar Functionalities or Organisation of the Tool 356     C.4.3 Assessment workflow of Chesar 358     C.5 Advice on Storing of Data Outside of the IUCLID 358     C.5.1 Structure 359     C.5.2 Identifiers 360     C.5.3 Mechanistic Issues 360     C.5.4 Identification and Expression of Substance Identity 361     C.5.5 Result Values 361     C.5.6 SMILES and Textual Representations of Structure 361     C.5.7 Modifications to the Data Set 361     C.5.8 Composited Fields and Repeated Processes 361     C.5.9 Duplicates 362     C.5.10 Validation 362     C.5.11 Checking 363     C.5.12 Study Reports and Cataloguing 363     C.5.13 Snapshots and Backups 364     Appendix D Glossary 365     Index 383