Chemical Principles

Cover......Page 1
Chemical Principles, Fifth Edition......Page 2
ISBN: 0-618-37206-7......Page 3
Contents......Page 4
Preface......Page 14
New to this Edition......Page 15
Flexibility of Topic Order......Page 16
For the Instructor......Page 18
Acknowledgements......Page 19
About the Author......Page 20
1. Chemists and Chemistry......Page 22
1.1 Thinking Like a Chemist......Page 23
1.2 A Real - World Chemistry Problem......Page 24
1.3 The Scientific Method......Page 28
1.4 Industrial Chenmistry......Page 30
1.5	Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC): Real-World Chemistry......Page 31
2.1	The Early History of Chemistry......Page 35
2.2 Fundamental Chemical Laws......Page 36
2.3	Dalton\'s Atomic Theory......Page 39
2.4	Cannizzaro\'s Interpretation......Page 41
2.5	Early Experiments to Characterize the Atom......Page 44
2.6 The Modern View of Atomic Structure: An Introduction......Page 47
2.7	Molecules and Ions......Page 50
2.8	An Introduction to the Periodic Table......Page 53
2.9 Naming Simple Compounds......Page 55
3. Stoichiometry......Page 71
3.1	Atomic Masses......Page 72
3.2 The Mole......Page 75
3.3	Molar Mass......Page 77
3.4 Percent Composition of Compounds......Page 79
3.5 Determining the Formula of a Compound......Page 81
3.6	Chemical Equations......Page 85
3.7	Balancing Chemical Equations......Page 87
3.8	Stoichiometric Calculations: Amounts of Reactants and Products......Page 89
3.9	Calculations Involving a Limiting Reactant......Page 93
4. Types of Chemical Reactions and Solution Stoichiometry......Page 108
4.1	Water, the Common Solvent......Page 109
4.2 The Nature of Aqueous Solutions: Strong and Weak Electrolytes......Page 111
4.3 The Composition of Solutions......Page 114
4.4 Types of Chemical Reactions......Page 118
4.5	Precipitation Reactions......Page 120
4.6	Describing Reactions in Solution......Page 125
4.7	Selective Precipitation......Page 127
4.8	Stoichiometry of Precipitation Reactions......Page 128
4.9	Acid—Base Reactions......Page 131
4.10 Oxidation—Reduction Reactions......Page 136
4.11 Balancing Oxidation—Reduction Equations......Page 142
4.12 Simple Oxidation—Reduction Titrations......Page 150
5. Gases......Page 160
5.1	Early Experiments......Page 161
5.2 The Gas Laws of Boyle, Charles, and Avogadro......Page 162
5.3 The Ideal Gas Law......Page 165
5.4	Gas Stoichiometry......Page 169
5.5	Dalton\'s Law of Partial Pressures......Page 171
5.6 The Kinetic Molecular Theory of Gases......Page 175
5.7 Effusion and Diffusion......Page 183
5.8	Collisions of Gas Particles with the Container Walls......Page 187
5.9	Intermolecular Collisions......Page 189
5.10 Real Gases	170......Page 191
5.11 Chemistry in the Atmosphere......Page 194
6. Chemical Equilibrium......Page 211
6.1	The Equilibrium Condition......Page 212
6.2	The Equilibrium Constant......Page 215
6.3	Equilibrium Expressions Involving Pressures......Page 218
6.4 The Concept of Activity......Page 220
6.5	Heterogeneous Equilibria......Page 221
6.6	Applications of the Equilibrium Constant......Page 222
6.7	Solving Equilibrium Problems......Page 226
6.8	Le Chatelier\'s Principle......Page 230
6.9	Equilibria Involving Real Gases......Page 237
7. Acids and Bases......Page 247
7.1	The Nature of Acids and Bases......Page 248
7.2	Acid Strength......Page 250
7.3	The pH Scale......Page 253
7.5	Calculating the pH of Weak Acid Solutions......Page 255
7.6	Bases......Page 262
7.7	Polyprotic Acids......Page 267
7.8	Acid—Base Properties of Salts......Page 275
7.9	Acid Solutions in Which Water Contributes to the H+ Concentration......Page 282
7.10 Strong Acid Solutions in Which Water Contributes to the H+ Concentration......Page 287
7.11 Strategy for Solving Acid—Base Problems: A Summary......Page 288
8. Applications of Aqueous Equilibria......Page 297
8.1	Solutions of Acids or Bases Containing a Common Ion......Page 298
8.2	Buffered Solutions......Page 300
8.3	Exact Treatment of Buffered Solutions......Page 308
8.4 Buffer Capacity......Page 311
8.5	Titrations and pH Curves......Page 314
8.6	Acid—Base Indicators......Page 330
8.7 Titration of Polyprotic Acids......Page 335
8.8	Solubility Equilibria and the Solubility Product......Page 339
8.9	Precipitation and Qualitative Analysis......Page 346
8.10	Complex Ion Equilibria......Page 351
9. Energy, Enthalpy, and Thermochemistry......Page 368
9.1	The Nature of Energy......Page 369
9.2	Enthalpy......Page 375
9.3	Thermodynamics of Ideal Gases......Page 376
9.4	Calorimetry......Page 383
9.5	Hess\'s Law......Page 390
9.6 Standard Enthalpies of Formation......Page 393
9.7	Present Sources of Energy......Page 400
9.8	New Energy Sources......Page 404
10. 	Spontaneity, Entropy, and Free Energy......Page 420
10.1	Spontaneous Processes......Page 421
10.2	The Isothermal Expansion and Compression of an Ideal Gas......Page 427
10.3	The Definition of Entropy......Page 434
10.4	Entropy and Physical Changes......Page 437
10.5	Entropy and the Second Law of Thermodynamics......Page 439
10.6 The Effect of Temperature on Spontaneity......Page 440
10.7 Free Energy......Page 443
10.8	Entropy Changes in Chemical Reactions......Page 446
10.9	Free Energy and Chemical Reactions......Page 450
10.10 The Dependence of Free Energy on Pressure......Page 454
10.11 Free Energy and Equilibrium......Page 458
10.12 Free Energy and Work......Page 463
10.13 Reversible and Irreversible Processes: A Summary......Page 466
10.14 Adiabatic Processes......Page 467
11. Electrochemistry......Page 482
11.1	Galvanic Cells......Page 483
11.2	Standard Reduction Potentials......Page 486
11.3	Cell Potential, Electrical Work, and Free Energy......Page 490
11.4	Dependence of the Cell Potential on Concentration......Page 493
11.5	Batteries......Page 500
11.6 Corrosion......Page 505
11.7	Electrolysis......Page 510
11.8 Commercial Electrolytic Processes......Page 514
12. Quantum Mechanics and Atomic Theory......Page 529
12.1	Electromagnetic Radiation......Page 530
12.2	The Nature of Matter......Page 532
12.3 The Atomic Spectrum of Hydrogen......Page 537
12.4 The Bohr Model......Page 538
12.5 The Quantum Mechanical Description of the Atom......Page 545
12.6	The Particle in a Box......Page 549
12.7 The Wave Equation for the Hydrogen Atom......Page 555
12.8	The Physical Meaning of a Wave Function......Page 558
12.9	The Characteristics of Hydrogen Orbitals......Page 559
12.11 Polyelectronic Atoms......Page 564
12.12 The History of the Periodic Table......Page 567
12.13 The Aufbau Principle and the Periodic Table......Page 569
12.14 Further Development of the Polyelectronic Model......Page 576
12.15 Periodic Trends in Atomic Properties......Page 579
12.16 The Properties of a Group: The Alkali Metals......Page 587
13. Bonding: General Concepts......Page 601
13.1	Types of Chemical Bonds......Page 602
13.2	Electronegativity......Page 606
13.3	Bond Polarity and Dipole Moments......Page 609
13.4	IOns: Electron Configurations and Sizes......Page 612
13.5	Formation of. Binary Ionic Compounds......Page 616
13.6	Partial Ionic Character of Covalent Bonds......Page 621
13.7 The Covalent Chemical Bond: A Model......Page 622
13.8	Covalent Bond Energies and Chemical Reactions......Page 625
13.9	The Localized Electron Bonding Model......Page 629
13.10 Lewis Structures......Page 630
13.11 Resonance......Page 635
13.12 Exceptions to the Octet Rule......Page 636
13.13 Molecular Structure: The VSEPR Model......Page 646
14.1	Hybridization and the Localized Electron Model......Page 669
14.2	The Molecular Orbital Model......Page 683
14.3	Bonding in Homonuclear Diatomic Molecules......Page 686
14.4	Bonding in Heteronuclear Diatomic Molecules......Page 693
14.5	Combining the Localized Electron and Molecular Orbital Models......Page 694
14.6	Orbitals: Human Inventions......Page 698
14.7	Molecular Spectroscopy: An Introduction......Page 699
14.8	Electronic Spectroscopy......Page 701
14.9	Vibrational Spectroscopy......Page 703
14.10 Rotational Spectroscopy......Page 707
14.11 Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy......Page 710
15. Chemical Kinetics......Page 722
15.1	Reaction Rates......Page 723
15.2	Rate Laws: An Introduction......Page 727
15.3	Determining the Form of the Rate Law......Page 730
15.4	The Integrated Rate Law......Page 734
15.5 Rate Laws: A Summary......Page 743
15.6	Reaction Mechanisms......Page 745
15.7	The Steady-State Approximation......Page 751
15.8	A Model for Chemical Kinetics......Page 754
15.9	Catalysis......Page 758
16. Liquids and Solids......Page 783
16.1	Intermolecular Forces......Page 784
16.2	The Liquid State......Page 787
16.3	An Introduction to Structures and Types of Solids......Page 790
16.4	Structure and Bonding in Metals......Page 795
16.5 Carbon and Silicon: Network Atomic Solids......Page 804
16.6	Molecular Solids......Page 815
16.7	Ionic Solids......Page 817
16.8	Structures of Actual Ionic Solids......Page 820
16.9	Lattice Defects......Page 822
16.10 Vapor Pressure and Changes of State......Page 823
16.11 Phase Diagrams......Page 831
17. Properties of Solutions......Page 845
17.2 The Thermodynamics of Solution Formation......Page 846
17.3	Factors Affecting Solubility......Page 853
17.4 The Vapor Pressures of Solutions......Page 859
17.5 Boiling-Point Elevation and Freezing-Point Depression......Page 863
17.6 Osmotic Pressure......Page 867
17.7 Colligative Properties of Electrolyte Solutions......Page 871
17.8 Colloids......Page 872
18. The Representative Elements: Groups IA Through 4A......Page 884
18.1 A Survey of the Representative Elements......Page 885
18.2 The Group 1A Elements......Page 890
18.3 The Chemistry of Hydrogen......Page 892
18.4 The Group 2A Elements......Page 895
18.5 The Group 3A Elements......Page 897
18.6 The Group 4A Elements......Page 899
19. The Representative Elements: Groups 5A Through 8A......Page 909
19.1 The Group 5A Elements......Page 910
19.2 The Chemistry of Nitrogen......Page 912
19.3 The Chemistry of Phosphorus......Page 923
19.4 The Group 6A Elements......Page 927
19.5 The Chemistry of Oxygen......Page 928
19.6 The Chemistry of Sulfur......Page 929
19.7 The Group 7A Elements......Page 933
19.8 The Group 8A Elements......Page 940
20. Transition Metals and Coordination Chemistry......Page 949
20.1 The Transition Metals: A Survey......Page 950
20.2 The First-Row Transition Metals......Page 956
20.3 Coordination Compounds......Page 962
20.4 Isomerism......Page 967
20.5 Bonding in Complex Ions: The Localized Electron Model......Page 974
20.6 The Crystal Field Model......Page 976
20.7 The Molecular Orbital Model......Page 983
20.8 The Biological Importance of Coordination Complexes......Page 986
21. The Nucleus: A Chemist\'s View......Page 997
21.1 Nuclear Stability and Radioactive Decay......Page 998
21.2 The Kinetics of Radioactive Decay......Page 1003
21.3 Nuclear Transformations......Page 1007
21.4 Detection and Uses of Radioactivity......Page 1009
21.5 Thermodynamic Stability of the Nucleus......Page 1012
21.6 Nuclear Fission and Nuclear Fusion......Page 1016
21.7 Effects of Radiation......Page 1021
22. Organic and Biochemical Molecules......Page 1031
22.1 Alkanes: Saturated Hydrocarbons......Page 1032
22.2 Alkenes and Alkynes......Page 1040
22.3 Aromatic Hydrocarbons......Page 1043
22.4 Hydrocarbon Derivatives......Page 1045
22.5 Polymers......Page 1052
22.6 Natural Polymers......Page 1062
A1.1 Exponential Notation......Page 1090
A1.2 Logarithms......Page 1092
A1.3 Graphing Functions......Page 1093
A1.4 Solving Quadratic Equations......Page 1094
A1.5 Uncertainties in Measurements......Page 1097
A1.6 Significant Figures......Page 1102
A2.1 Measurements......Page 1104
A2.2 Unit Conversions......Page 1106
Appendix 3 Spectral Analysis......Page 1107
Appendix 4 Selected Thermodynamic Data......Page 1110
Appendix 5 Equilibrium Constants and Reduction Potentials......Page 1113
Glossary......Page 1117
Answers to Selected Exercises......Page 1130
Photo Credits......Page 1158
Index......Page 1160
TrUe LiAr......Page 1183