Chemical and Functional Properties of Food Components

Cover
Half Title
Chemical and Functional Properties of Food Components Series
Chemical and Functional Properties of Food Components
Copyright
Contents
Preface
About the Editors
Contributors
1. Food Components and Quality
	1.1 Introduction
		1.1.1 Components of Food Raw Materials and Products
		1.1.2 Factors Affecting Food Composition
		1.1.3 The Role of Food Components
	1.2 Functional Properties
	1.3 Food Quality
		1.3.1 Attributes of Quality
		1.3.2 Safety and Nutritional Value
		1.3.3 Sensory Quality
	1.4 Chemical Analysis in Ensuring Food Quality
		1.4.1 Introduction
		1.4.2 Requirements of the Producer
		1.4.3 Requirements of the Consumer
		1.4.4 Limits of Determination
	1.5 Conclusion
2. Chemical Composition and Structure of Foods
	2.1 Meat
		2.1.1 Definition of Meat
		2.1.2 Structure of Meat
		2.1.3 The Chemical Composition of Meat
	2.2 Eggs
		2.2.1 Foreword
		2.2.2 Egg Structure
		2.2.3 Chemical Composition of a Hen’s Egg
	2.3 Milk
		2.3.1 Definition
		2.3.2 Chemical Composition of Milk
	2.4 Cereals
		2.4.1 Foreword
		2.4.2 The Structure of the Grain
		2.4.3 Chemical Composition of Cereals
	2.5 Legumes
	2.6. Fruits
		2.6.1 Foreword
		2.6.2 Structure of Fruits
		2.6.3 The Chemical Composition of Fruits
	2.7 Vegetables
		2.7.1 Definitions
		2.7.2 Chemical Composition of Vegetable
		2.7.3 Potato
	2.8 Oil Seeds and Fruits
	2.9 Honey
	References
3. Water and Food Quality
	3.1 Introduction
	3.2 Structure and Properties of Water
		3.2.1 The Water Molecule
		3.2.2 Hydrogen Bonds
		3.2.3 Properties of Bulk Water
		3.2.4 Thermal Properties of Water
		3.2.5 Water as a Solvent
		3.2.6 Water in Biological Materials
			3.2.6.1 Properties
			3.2.6.2 Water Transport
	3.3 Water in Food
		3.3.1 Introduction
		3.3.2 Sorption Isotherms and Water Activity
			3.3.2.1 Principle
			3.3.2.2 Measurement of Water Activity
			3.3.2.3 Water Activity and Shelf Life of Foods
		3.3.3 Bottled Water
			3.3.3.1 Classification
			3.3.3.2 Natural Mineral Water
		3.3.4 Bottled Water Other Than Natural Mineral Water
			3.3.4.1 Definition
			3.3.4.2 Water Defined by Origin
			3.3.4.3 Hygiene, Labeling, and Health Benefits
		3.3.5 Water Supply, Quality, and Disposal
			3.3.5.1 Water Supply
			3.3.5.2 Water Quality
		3.3.6 Water Pollution
		3.3.7 Wastewater Treatment and Disposal
	References
4. The Role of Mineral Components
	4.1 The Origin and Contents of Mineral Components in Food Raw Materials and Products
	4.2 Factors Affecting the Appearance and Speciation of These Components
		4.2.1 Sources of Elements in Food
		4.2.2 Speciation of Essential Elements
		4.2.3 Speciation of Toxic Elements
	4.3 Changes in the Contents and Distribution of Mineral Components in Foods Due to Storage and Processing
		4.3.1 Negative Effects of Food Processing
		4.3.2 Positive Effects of Food Processing
		4.3.3 Influence of Thermal Processing
		4.3.4 Influence of Processing on Cereals
		4.3.5 Influence of Processing on Foods of Animal Origin
		4.3.6 The Influence of Packaging
	4.4 The Effect of These Components on the Stability and Sensory Properties as Well as the Biological Value of Foods
		4.4.1 Enzymatic Browning and Interactions between Metal Ions and Polysaccharides
		4.4.2 Sodium Chloride and Alkali Metals Influence
		4.4.3 Effect of Hard Water
		4.4.4 Effect on Oxidation
	4.5 Interactions of Mineral Elements with Other Food Components
	4.6 Mineral Food Additives
	References
5. Saccharides
	5.1 Chemical Properties
		5.1.1 Introduction
		5.1.2 Chemical Structure
			5.1.2.1 Monosaccharides
			5.1.2.2 Alginates
			5.1.2.3 Carrageenans
			5.1.2.4 Cellulose
			5.1.2.5 Chitosan
			5.1.2.6 Cyclodextrins
			5.1.2.7 Pectin Polysaccharides
			5.1.2.8 Starch
			5.1.2.9 Bacterial Polysaccharides
		5.1.3 Chemical Reactivity
			5.1.3.1 Reduction
			5.1.3.2 Oxidation
			5.1.3.3 Metal Interactions
			5.1.3.4 Esterification
			5.1.3.5 Etherification
			5.1.3.6 Glycosylation
	5.2 Functional Properties
		5.2.1 Introduction
		5.2.2 Color, Flavor, and Aroma
			5.2.2.1 Non-Enzymatic Browning/Maillard Browning
			5.2.2.2 Degradation of Ascorbic Acid
			5.2.2.3 Caramelization
		5.2.3 Taste
		5.2.4 Texture
		5.2.5 Nutritional Value
	References
6. The Role of Proteins in Food
	6.1 Chemical Structure and Conformation
		6.1.1 Amino Acid Composition
		6.1.2 Hydrophobicity
		6.1.3 The Native State
		6.1.4 Denaturation
	6.2 The Functional Properties
		6.2.1 Introduction
		6.2.2 Solubility
		6.2.3 Water Holding Capacity
		6.2.4 Gelling and Film Formation
			6.2.4.1 The Gel Structure
			6.2.4.2 Interactions of Components
			6.2.4.3 Binding Forces and Process Factors
			6.2.4.4 Importance in Food Processing
		6.2.5 Emulsifying Properties
			6.2.5.1 The Principle
			6.2.5.2 Factors Affecting Emulsifying
			6.2.5.3 Determination of Emulsifying Properties
		6.2.6 Foaming
	6.3 Effects of Heating
		6.3.1 Introduction
		6.3.2 Rheological Changes
		6.3.3 Changes in Color and Development of Volatile Compounds
		6.3.4 Reactions at Alkaline pH
	6.4 Oxidation
	6.5 Enzyme-Catalyzed Reactions
		6.5.1 Introduction
		6.5.2 The Plastein Reaction
		6.5.3 Transglutaminase CatalyzedReactions
		6.5.4 Proteolytic Changes in Milk Proteins
		6.5.5 Role of Enzymes in Muscle Foods
		6.5.6 Other Enzymatic Changes in Food Proteins
	6.6 Chemical Modifications
		6.6.1 Introduction
		6.6.2 Alkylation
		6.6.3 Acylation
		6.6.4 N-Nitrosation
		6.6.5 Reactions with Phosphates
	6.7 Biological Effects of Proteins in Foods
		6.7.1 Nutritional Value
		6.7.2 Harmful Effects
	6.8 Proteins in Various Food Raw Materials
		6.8.1 Muscle Proteins
		6.8.2 Milk Proteins
		6.8.3 Egg Proteins
		6.8.4 Legume Proteins
		6.8.5 Cereal Proteins
		6.8.6 Mycoprotein
		6.8.7 Other Proteins in Food Raw Materials
	References
7. Non-Protein Nitrogenous Compounds
	7.1 Introduction
	7.2 Free Amino Acids
		7.2.1 Protein Amino Acids
		7.2.2 Non-Protein Amino Acids
		7.2.3 Effect of FAAs on the Palatability of Food Products
		7.2.4 Effect of Processing on the FAA Content in Food
	7.3 Peptides
		7.3.1 Flavor Peptides
		7.3.2 Peptides with Biological Activity
			7.3.2.1 Peptides with Antimicrobial and Immunomodulatory Activities
			7.3.2.2 Opioid Peptides
			7.3.2.3 Peptides That Act as Angiotensin Inhibitors
			7.3.2.4 Peptides with Antioxidant Activity
			7.3.2.5 Peptides with Anti-Cancer Activity
			7.3.2.6 Peptides with Hypolipidemic Activity
	7.4 Amines
		7.4.1 Biogenic Amines (BAs)
			7.4.1.1 Effects of BAs on Health
			7.4.1.2 The Formation of BAs in Food
		7.4.2 Volatile Amines
	7.5 Nucleic Acids and Nucleotides
	7.6 Conclusions
	References
8. Lipids and Food Quality
	8.1 Chemical Structure and Physical Properties of Lipids
		8.1.1 Introduction
		8.1.2 Fatty Acids
		8.1.3 Acylglycerols
			8.1.3.1 Chemical Structure
			8.1.3.2 Crystallization
			8.1.3.3 Crystalline Network Formation
		8.1.4 Phospholipids
		8.1.5 Waxes
	8.2 Biological Effects of Lipids in Foods
		8.2.1 Nutritional Value
		8.2.2 Harmful Effects
			8.2.2.1 Natural Lipids
			8.2.2.2 Oxidized Lipids
			8.2.2.3 Cold- and Hot-Pressed Oils
			8.2.2.4 Trans Fatty Acids
	8.3 The Effects of Lipids on the Sensory Value of Food
		8.3.1 Introduction
		8.3.2 The Role of Lipids in Food Color
		8.3.3 Lipids and Food Flavor
		8.3.4 Lipids and Food Texture
	8.4 Chemical and Biochemical Reactions of Lipids in Storage and Processing
		8.4.1 Introduction
		8.4.2 Hydrolysis
		8.4.3 Esterification
		8.4.4 Hydrogenation and Isomerization
		8.4.5 Oxidation
	8.5 Frying Fats
		8.5.1 Introduction
		8.5.2 Chemical Reactions
	8.6 Lipid Emulsions
		8.6.1 Structure
		8.6.2 Physical Stability
		8.6.3 Susceptibility to Oxidation
	References
9. Factors Affecting the Rheological Properties of Foods
	9.1 Introduction
	9.2 Basic Dependencies and Research Methods of Rheologic Properties
		9.2.1 The Impact of Food Ingredients on Its Rheologic Properties
		9.2.2 Methods of Testing Food Rheologic Properties – Defining Food Mechanical Properties
		9.2.3 The Research Methods of Food Rheologic Properties – Rheology of Liquids
			9.2.3.1 Laminar and Turbulent Flow
			9.2.3.2 Dynamic Viscosity
			9.2.3.3 Relative Viscosity
			9.2.3.4 Kinematic Viscosity
			9.2.3.4 Shear Stress
			9.2.3.5 Shear Speed
			9.2.3.6 Viscosity Parameters
			9.2.3.7 The Division of Liquids
			9.2.3.8 Viscosity Measurements
	References
10. Food Colorants
	10.1 Anthocyanins
		10.1.1 Influence of Chemical Structure on Color
		10.1.2 Occurrence of Anthocyanins
		10.1.3 Anthocyanins Stability and Alterations during Processing and Storage
	10.2 Betalains
		10.2.1 Influence of Chemical Structure on Color
		10.2.2 Occurrence of Betalains
		10.2.3 Betalains Stability and Alterations during Processing and Storage
	10.3 Chlorophylls
		10.3.1 Influence of Chemical Structure on Color
		10.3.2 Occurrence of Chlorophylls
		10.3.3 Chlorophylls Stability and Alterations during Processing and Storage
	10.4 Carotenoids
		10.4.1 Influence of Chemical Structure on Color
		10.4.2 Occurrence of Carotenoids in Food
		10.4.3 Carotenoids Stability and Alterations during Processing and Storage
	10.5 Plant Pigments as Food Coloring Additives
	References
11. Prooxidants and Antioxidants in Food
	11.1 Introduction
	11.2 Oxidants in Foods and Measuring the Oxidation Potential
	11.3 Mechanisms of Lipid Oxidation
	11.4 Oxidation of Proteins in Foods
	11.5 The Effect of Oxidation on the Sensory and Biological Properties of Foods
	11.6 Beneficial Role of Added Antioxidants to Foods
	11.7 Sources of Natural Antioxidants in Foods
	11.8 Antioxidants Generated by Processing of Foods
	11.9 Sources and Impact of Prooxidants in Foods
		11.9.1 Tocopherols
		11.9.2 Carotenoids
		11.9.3 Vitamin C
		11.9.4 Flavonoids
		11.9.5 Prooxidant Transition-Metal Ions
		11.9.6 Lipoxygenases
		11.9.7 Free Fatty Acids
		11.9.8 Salt
	11.10 Antioxidant Activity and Its Measurement
	References
12. Food Allergens
	12.1 Nomenclature of Allergens
	12.2 Causes of Food Allergy
	12.3 Mechanisms of the Allergic Reaction to Food
	12.4 Symptoms and Health Hazards
	12.5 Allergens of Animal and Plant Origin
		12.5.1 Allergenic Protein Families of Animal Origin
		12.5.2 Main Allergens of Animal Origin
			12.5.2.1 Cow’s Milk Allergens
			12.5.2.2 Egg Allergens
			12.5.2.3 Fish Allergens
			12.5.2.4 Crustacean Allergens
			12.5.2.5 Mollusk Allergens
		12.5.3 Protein Families of Plant Allergens
			12.5.3.1 Prolamin Superfamily
			12.5.3.2 Cupin Superfamily
			12.5.3.3 Profilins Superfamily
			12.5.3.4 PR-10 Proteins
		12.5.4 Main Allergens of Plant Origin
			12.5.4.1 Peanut Allergens
			12.5.4.2 Soy Allergens
			12.5.4.3 Nut Allergens
			12.5.4.4 Wheat Allergens
			12.5.4.5 Mustard
			12.5.4.6 Sesame
			12.5.4.7 Celery
			12.5.4.8 Lupine
	12.6 Methods for Allergen Determination
		12.6.1 ELISA (Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay)
		12.6.2 Methods Based on DNA Analysis
		12.6.3 Methods Using Mass Spectroscopy
		12.6.4 Biosensors
	12.7 Effects of Technological Processes on Food Allergens
		12.7.1 Thermal Processes
		12.7.2 Glycation
		12.7.3 Lactic Fermentation
		12.7.4 Enzymatic Modifications
		12.7.5 Cross-Linking with Transglutaminase
		12.7.6 Pressurization
		12.7.7 Ultrasound
	12.8 Prevention of Food Allergy
	References
13. Food Flavors
	13.1 Introduction
	13.2 Sources of Food Flavors
		13.2.1 Flavors Formed Naturally in Plants
			13.2.1.1 Spices and Herbs
			13.2.1.2 Fruits and Vegetables
			13.2.1.3 Algae
		13.2.2 Flavors Produced in Animals
			13.2.2.1 Meats
			13.2.2.2 Seafood
			13.2.2.3 Flavors Produced by Microbes and Enzymes
	13.3 Aroma Compounds Classification and Chemical Structures
		13.3.1 Chemical Structures and Their Odors
		13.3.2 Odor Intensity of Aroma Compounds
	13.4 Aroma Changes during Post-Harvest Storage of Plants
		13.4.1 Spices and Herbs
		13.4.2 Fruits and Vegetables
	13.5 Thermal Reactions and Flavor Compounds Formation
		13.5.1 Maillard Reaction
		13.5.2 Lipid Oxidation
		13.5.3 Interaction of Lipids in the Maillard Reaction
	13.6 Flavor Industry: A Blend of Art, Science, and Technology
		13.6.1 Ingredients for Flavor Creation
		13.6.2 Flavorings for Food Industries
		13.6.3 Flavor Formulation and Labeling
	13.7 Flavor Manufacturing and Flavor Delivery Systems
		13.7.1 Emulsion Flavors
		13.7.2 Powder Flavor
		13.7.3 Reaction Flavors and Safety Concerns
		13.7.4 Herbs and Seasonings Blends
	13.8 Food Trends and Future Flavor Industry
		13.8.1 Flavor Applications
		13.8.2 Plant-Based Meat and Drinks
		13.8.3 Recombinant DNA Technology for Flavor
		13.8.4 Flavor Legislation
	References
14. The Role of Food Additives
	14.1 Introduction
	14.2 Additives That Extend Shelf-Life of Food Products
		14.2.1 Preservatives
		14.2.2 Acidity Regulators
	14.3 Additives Influencing Sensory Perception of Food Products
		14.3.1 Sweeteners
		14.3.2 Flavor Enhancers
	14.4 Additives with Structure-Promoting Properties
		14.4.1 Hydrocolloids
		14.4.2 Emulsifiers
	14.5 Recent Trends in the Use of Food Additives
	14.6 Principles of Safety Assessment of Food Additives
	14.7 International Regulations Governing the Use of Food Additives
	References
15. Food Safety
	15.1 Introduction
	15.2 Harmful Substances Generated during Food Production and Storage
	15.3 New Food Safety Problems: Micro- and Nanoplastics in Foods
	15.4 Food Safety Control
	References
16. Probiotics and Prebiotics in Food
	16.1 Introduction
	16.2 Probiotics
		16.2.1 Definition and Regulations
		16.2.2 Criteria for Identification/Selection of Probiotics
		16.2.3 Characteristics of Probiotics
		16.2.4 Health Benefits of Probiotics
		16.2.5 Hazards
		16.2.6 Probiotic Food
	16.3 Prebiotics
		16.3.1 Definition
		16.3.2 Health Benefits of Prebiotic Consumption
		16.3.3 Types of Prebiotics
			16.3.3.1 Carbohydrate-Based Prebiotics
			16.3.3.2 Non-Carbohydrate Prebiotics
	References
17. Mood Food
	17.1 Dietary Amino Acids and Neurotransmitters in the Brain
	17.2 Sweets and Brain Function
	17.3 Food Lipids and the Human Mood
	17.4 The Effect of Vitamins and Mineral Compounds on Mood
	17.5 Ethyl Alcohol and Human Mood
	References
18. Mutagenic and Carcinogenic Compounds in Food
	18.1 Introduction
	18.2 Mechanisms Involved in Carcinogenic Transformation Induced by Food Components
	18.3 Metabolic Activation of Genotoxic Food Components and Mechanism of DNA Adduct Formation: Evaluation of Cancer Risk and Classification of Carcinogens
	18.4 Food Mutagens and Carcinogens
		18.4.1 Introduction
		18.4.2 Mycotoxins
		18.4.3 Nitrosamines
		18.4.4 Mutagens in Thermally Processed Foods
	18.5 Other Diet-Related Risk Factors
	18.6 Concluding Remarks
	References
19. Non-Nutritive Bioactive Compounds in Food of Plant Origin
	19.1 Introduction
	19.2 Secondary Plant Metabolites
		19.2.1 Phenolic Compounds
		19.2.2 Nitrogen- and/or Sulfur-Containing Compounds
			19.2.2.1 Betalains
			19.2.2.2 Purine Alkaloids
			19.2.2.3 Glucosinolates
			19.2.2.4 Sulfoxides
		19.2.3 Terpenoids
	19.3 Conclusion
	References
20. Analytical Methods Used for Assessing the Quality of Food Products
	20.1 Introduction
	20.2 Analytical Methods for Food Quality Control
		20.2.1 Standardization
		20.2.2 Sensorial, Physical, and Chemical Characterization in Foods
			20.2.2.1 Sensory Characteristics
			20.2.2.2 Hidden Characteristics
		20.2.3 Authentication
		20.2.4 Adulteration
		20.2.5 Food Safety
	20.3 Selecting Appropriate Analytical Methods
	References