Characterization of Nanoencapsulated Food Ingredients: Volume 4

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CHARACTERIZATION OF
NANOENCAPSULATED
FOOD INGREDIENTS,
Volume 4
Copyright
Contributors
Preface to the series
Preface to Volume 4
1
Introduction to characterization of nanoencapsulated food ingredients
	Introduction
	Nano-scale delivery systems for bioactive components and nutraceuticals
	Features and characterization of nanocarriers
		Morphology of nanoencapsulated food ingredients
			Transmission electron microscopy: TEM (Chapter 2)
			Scanning electron microscopy: SEM (Chapter 3)
			Confocal laser scanning microscopy: CLSM (Chapter 4)
			Atomic force microscopy: AFM (Chapter 5)
		Size and surface characteristics of nanoencapsulated food ingredients
			Dynamic light scattering: DLS (Chapter 6)
			Surface charge: Zeta-potential (Chapter 7)
			Surface composition analysis by X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy: XPS (Chapter 8)
		Structural analysis of nanoencapsulated food ingredients
			X-ray diffraction: XRD (Chapter 9)
			Differential scanning calorimetry: DSC (Chapter 10)
			Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy: FTIR (Chapter 11)
			Nuclear magnetic resonance: NMR (Chapter 12)
			Small angle scattering: SAXS/SANS (Chapter 13)
		Physicochemical and rheological characteristics of nanoencapsulated food ingredients
			Optical analysis by color measurement (Chapter 14)
			Rheological characterization by viscometers (Chapter 15)
			Rheological analysis by rheometers (Chapter 16)
			Spectroscopic and chromatographic analysis (Chapter 17)
			Antioxidant activity analysis (Chapter 18)
	Conclusion
	References
Section A: Morphology of nanoencapsulated food ingredients
2
Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) of nanoencapsulated food ingredients
	Introduction
	Background and theory of TEM
		Instrument setup
	Cryo-preparation methods for TEM
		Freeze-etching and freeze-fracturing
			Advantages and limitations of freeze-fracture TEM
		Cryo-TEM
			Experimental setup
			Preparation of specimen and potential artefacts
		Cryo analytical TEM (cryo-ATEM): An emerging TEM approach
	Nanoscale delivery systems studied by TEM
		Polymeric nanoparticles
		Nanoliposomal carriers
		Nanoemulsion delivery systems
		Solid lipid nanoparticles (SLNs) and nanostructured lipid carriers (NLCs)
		Nanofibers
	Conclusion
	References
	Further reading
3
Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) of nanoencapsulated food ingredients
	Introduction
	Importance of morphology evaluation and different available techniques
		Atomic force microscopy (AFM)
		Transmission electron microscope (TEM)
		Scanning electron microscope (SEM)
	Fundamentals of SEM; Instrumental and technical background
		Freeze-fracture preparation
		Cryo-preparation
		Technical differences in the methods of sample preparation for SEM
	Applications of SEM for different bioactive-loaded nanocarriers
		Lipid nanocarriers
		Protein/polysaccharide-based nanocarriers
		Nanofibers and nanotubes
		Nanocomposites and bioactive packaging films
		Mesoporous nanoparticles
	Conclusion and recent advances
	References
	Further reading
4
Confocal laser scanning microscopy (CLSM) of nanoencapsulated food ingredients
	Introduction
	Principles of confocal microscopy
	Potentials and limitations of CLSM
	Applications of CLSM in nanoencapsulated food ingredients
		Solid lipid nanoparticles (SLNs) and nanostructured lipid carriers (NLCs)
		Biopolymeric nanocarriers
		Nanoemulsion systems
	Conclusion
	References
5
Atomic force microscopy (AFM) of nanoencapsulated food ingredients
	Introduction
		A brief history of AFM
		Working principles of AFM
		Potentials and challenges of AFM
	Topography imaging of nanoencapsulated materials by AFM
	Force measurement using AFM
		Importance of mechanical properties
		Application of AFM to study nanomechanical properties of nanocarriers
		Mathematical models for force measurement using AFM
			Hertz model
			Sneddon model
			Bilodeau model
	Conclusion and further remarks
	References
	Further reading
Section B: Size and surface characteristics of nanoencapsulated food ingredients
6
Dynamic light scattering (DLS) of nanoencapsulated food ingredients
	Introduction
	Dynamic light scattering: An overview
		Rayleigh scattering
		How to analyze the size distributions?
	Interpreting and understanding DLS data
	Case study: Characterization of nanoencapsulated β-carotene into TPP-chitosome nanoparticles by DLS
	DLS studies of nanoencapsulated food ingredients
		Nanoemulsions
		Solid lipid nanoparticles
		Nanostructured lipid carriers
		Nanoliposomes
		Biopolymeric nanoparticles
	References
	Further reading
7
Surface charge (zeta-potential) of nanoencapsulated food ingredients
	Introduction
		Electrical double layer
		zeta-Potential
	Principals of zeta-potential measurement
		Electro-osmosis measurements
		Streaming potential measurements
		Electrophoresis measurements
		Sedimentation potential
	Methodology of zeta-potential measurement
		Sample preparation
		Procedures
		Pitfalls and limitations
	Factors that affect zeta-potential
		pH and ionic strength
		Interfacial absorbance
	Zeta-potential measurements for nano/micro-encapsulated food materials
		Protein-based delivery systems
		Carbohydrate-based delivery systems
		Solid lipid nanoparticles
		Emulsions
	Food matrix and zeta-potential
		Dairy products
		Creams
		Food gels
		Juices
	Conclusions and future prospects
	References
	Further reading
8
Surface composition of nanoencapsulated food ingredients by X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS)
	Introduction
	Principles of XPS
	Instrumentation of XPS
	XPS applications
		XPS applications for encapsulated food ingredients
		XPS applications in the food industry
	Conclusion and future trends
	References
Section C: Structural analysis of nanoencapsulated food ingredients
9
X-ray diffraction (XRD) of nanoencapsulated food ingredients
	Introduction
	X-ray scattering
	Elementary principles of XRD
	XRD instrumentation
	Preparation of specimen
	Nanoengineered food delivery systems studied by XRD
		Polymeric nanoparticles
		Nanoliposomal carriers
		Nanostructured lipid carriers (NLCs) and solid lipid nanoparticles (SLNs)
		Electrospun/electrosprayed nanostructures
	Conclusion
	References
10
Differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) of nanoencapsulated food ingredients
	Introduction
	Fundamentals of DSC
		Types of DSCs
			Heat flux DSC
			Power compensation DSC
			Modulated DSC (MDSC)
		Calibration of DSCs
	Primary applications of DSC
		Transition temperatures recorded in DSC analysis
		Determination of the degree of crystallization and melting of polymers
		Heat capacity
		DSC for investigation of structural properties
	Application of DSC coupling with other thermal and physical tests
		DSC coupling with XRD
		DSC coupling with FTIR
		Thermogravimetric analysis (TGA)
		Differential thermal analysis (DTA)
		Differential photocalorimetry (DPC)
	Thermal stability of natural biopolymers determined by DSC
		Thermal behavior of proteins
		Thermal behavior of polysaccharides
		Thermal behavior of lipids
		Improvement of thermal stability of biopolymers
	Application of DSC in nanoencapsulation of food ingredients
		Thermal stability of bioactive-loaded nanocapsules determined by DSC
		DSC for confirmation of encapsulation
		DSC for evaluation of encapsulation efficiency
		DSC for determination of Tg as a function of water content
		DSC as a method for determination of storage stability
	New approaches to enhance thermal stability of food ingredients by nanoencapsulation
		Natural pigments
		Flavoring agents
		Other bioactive food ingredients
			Probiotics
			Bacteriophages
			Antioxidants
			Vitamins
	Conclusion
	References
	Further reading
11
Fourier transform infrared (FT-IR) spectroscopy of nanoencapsulated food ingredients
	Introduction
	Fundamentals of FT-IR spectroscopy
	Sample preparation and transmission measurements
		Liquid samples
		Solid samples
	The role of FT-IR spectroscopy in encapsulation field
		Infrared absorption of protein solutions
		Characterization of encapsulated bioactive compounds by FT-IR
			Phenolic compounds
			Carotenoids
			Essential oils
	Conclusions
	References
12
Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy of nanoencapsulated food ingredients
	Introduction: A historical perspective
	Basic principles of NMR spectroscopy
	NMR operating systems: Applicable for analyzing nanoencapsulated food ingredients
		Continuous-wave and Fourier (pulsed) transform spectrometers
		Solid-state and liquid-state NMR operating systems
		One-dimensional and multidimensional NMR spectroscopy
	Qualitative and quantitative analysis of nanoencapsulated food ingredients by proton and carbon NMR spectroscopies
		Proton NMR analysis
		13C NMR analysis
		NMR relaxation measurements
	Summarizing remarks
	References
	Further reading
13
Small angle scattering (SAS) techniques for analysis of nanoencapsulated food ingredients
	Introduction
	Fundamentals of small-angle scattering
	Experimental design and data collection
	Data analysis and interpretation
	Small-angle scattering instrumentation
	SAXS and SANS studies on food-relevant encapsulation structures
		Emulsion-based encapsulation systems
		Lipid nano-carriers
		Copolymers and micelles
		Protein capsules
		Carbohydrate-based encapsulation structures
		Microgels
		Coacervates
	Conclusions and outlook
	References
Section D: Physicochemical and rheological characteristics of nanoencapsulated food ingredients
14
Optical analysis of nanoencapsulated food ingredients by color measurement
	Introduction
	Principles of color measurement
	Optical analysis of micro/nanoencapsulated food ingredients in different food models
		Bakery products
		Dairy products
		Beverage products
		Powder food ingredients
		Other models
	Conclusions and perspectives
	References
15
Rheological characterization of liquid nanoencapsulated food ingredients by viscometers
	Introduction to rheology
	Rheology of emulsions as delivery systems
		Nanoemulsions
		Oil type and droplet volume
	Importance of liquid rheology in other encapsulation systems
		Electrospraying/electrospinning
		Nano spray drying
		Nanostructured lipid carriers
	Conclusions
	References
	Further reading
16
Rheological analysis of solid-like nanoencapsulated food ingredients by rheometers
	Introduction
	Key indicators of rheological analysis
		Viscosity
		Complex shear modulus
		Bulk modulus
		Youngs modulus or modulus of elasticity (E)
		Storage modulus
		Loss modulus
		Loss factor
		Zero shear viscosity
		Newtonian/non-Newtonian fluids
		Shear stress
		Shear strain
		Yield stress
	Common rheometers for rheological analysis of nanoencapsulated food ingredients
		Rotational rheometer
	Benefits:
	Limitation:
		Capillary rheometer
	Benefits:
	Limitations:
		Torque rheometer
	Benefits:
		Interfacial rheometer
			EDM
			ODM
	Rheological analysis of solid-like nanoencapsulated food ingredients
		Nanoemulsions
		Nanoliposomes
		Solid lipid nanoparticles
		Nanohydrogels
		Cubosomes
		Nanostructured lipid carriers
		Aerogels
	Factors affecting rheology of nanoencapsulated food ingredients
	Importance of rheological properties in encapsulated systems
	Conclusion
	References
17
Spectroscopic and chromatographic analyses of nanoencapsulated food ingredients
	Introduction
	Characterization of nanoencapsulated food ingredients
		Size and morphology
		Binding and stability
		Structure and composition
	Analysis of nanoencapsulated food bioactives by spectroscopy
		Basics of spectroscopy
		Common spectroscopic methods for nanoencapsulated food ingredients
			UV-visible spectrophotometry
			Mass spectrometry (MS)
		Sample preparation and measurement
	Analysis of nanoencapsulated food bioactives by chromatography
		Basics of chromatography
		Common chromatographic methods for nanoencapsulated food ingredients
			High performance liquid chromatography (HPLC)
			GC-MS
			LC-MS
		Sample preparation and measurement
	Conclusion
	References
	Further reading
18
Antioxidant activity analysis of nanoencapsulated food ingredients
	Introduction
	Importance of nanoencapsulation for antioxidant food ingredients
	Analytical techniques for measuring antioxidant activity of nanoencapsulated ingredients
		Spectroscopic techniques
			FRAP technique
			DPPH technique
			ABTS technique
			HORAC technique
			ORAC technique
			TRAP technique
			CUPRAC technique
			PFRAP technique
			Folin-Ciocalteu method
			Fluorimetry
		Electrochemical techniques
			Amperometric technique
			Cyclic voltammetric technique
			Biamperometric technique
			Biosensors technique
		Chromatographic methods
			HPLC
			Gas chromatography
			TLC autography technique
				Qualitative analysis
				Semi quantitative analysis
		Cellular antioxidant activity (CAA)
	Commonly used methods for evaluating antioxidant activity of nanoencapsulated foods
	The influence of encapsulation on antioxidant properties of food ingredients
	Conclusion
	References
	Further reading
Index
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