Cell Biology, Genetics, Molecular Biology, Evolution and Ecology

Chapters
1. Introduction
Pages
3–15 16–31
32–68
69–111
112–153
CONTENTS
CELL BIOLOGY
Definition of cell biology ; history of cell biology ; unit of measurement of cell; cell biology and other biological sciences ; revision questions.
2. Techniques in Cell Biology
Microscopy – light microscopy, methods of sample prepa- ration for light microscopy, electron microscopy, methods of sample preparation for transmission electron micros- copy; X-ray diffraction analysis ; cell fractionation ; auto- radiography ; cell culture ; chromatography ; electrophore- sis ; dialysis; revision questions.
3. Cell
Viruses ; cells of cellular organisms ; prokaryotic cells — bacteria, examples of prokaryotic cells– mycoplasma or PPLO, Escherichia coli, cyanobacteria or blue-green al- gae; eukaryotic cells – cell shape, cell size, cell volume, cell number, structure, cell wall and plasma membrane, cytoplasm, nucleus; revision questions.
4. Cytoplasmic Matrix (Chemical Organization of the Cell)
Physical nature of cytosol (or cytoplasmic matrix) ; chemi- cal organization of cytosol ; types of compounds of cyto- sol; inorganic compounds – water ; organic compounds – carbohydrates, lipids (fats), proteins, enzymes, prosthetic groups and coenzymes, isoenzymes, vitamins, hormones, nucleic acids ; properties of cytoplasmic matrix ; revision questions.
5. Plasma Membrane and Cell Wall
Isolation and analysis ; chemical composition — lipids, proteins, carbohydrates; structure of plasma membrane — evolution of fluid mosaic model of membrane, experimen- tal evidence in support of fluid mosaic model of plasma membrane, role of lipid molecules in maintaining fluid property of membrane, membrane asymmetry, constraints on the motility of membrane molecules ; origin of plasma
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membrane, functions of plasma membrane — passive trans- port, active transport, bulk transport ; differentiation of cell surface — invaginations, microvilli, basement membrane, tight junctions (zonula occludens), gap junctions (nexus) ; cell coat ; cell wall — chemical composition, structure, ultrastructure, functions, origin and growth; revision ques- tions.
6. Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)
Occurrence ; ER and endomembrane system ; morphology; ultrastructure ; types of endoplasmic reticulum — smooth endoplasmic reticulum, rough endoplasmic reticulum, an- nulate lamellae ; isolation and chemical composition; en- zymes of the ER membranes ; origin of endoplasmic reticu- lum ; functions of endoplasmic reticulum ; revision ques- tions.
7. Golgi Apparatus
Historical ; occurrence ; distribution ; morphology ; isola- tion and chemical composition ; origin; functions ; revision questions.
8. Lysosomes
Historical ; occurrence ; structure ; isolation and chemical composition — lysosomal enzymes, lysosomal membrane; kind of lysosomes (polymorphism in lysosomes) — pri- mary lysosomes, heterophagosomes, autophagosomes, re- sidual bodies ; origin ; functions of lysosomes ; lysosomes and disease ; lysosomes in plants — vacuoles, spherosomes, aleurone grain ; revision questions.
9. Microbodies : Peroxisomes and Glyoxysomes
Historical ; microbodies : structure and types ; peroxisomes — functions of peroxisomes, biogenesis of peroxisomes ; glyoxysomes — functions ; revision questions.
10. Mitochondria
Historical ; distribution or localization ; orientation, mor- phology ; isolation ; chemical composition; mitochondria and chloroplasts as transducing systems ; functions — adenosine triphosphate (ATP) ; oxidation of carbohydrates– glycolysis, oxidative decarboxylation, Krebs cycle, respira- tory chain and oxidative phosphorylation ; β-oxidation of fatty acids ; oxidation of proteins, other functions of mito- chondria ; biogenesis of mitochondria – mitochondria as semiautonomous organelles, prokaryotic origin or symbiont hypothesis ; revision questions.
11. Plastids (Chloroplasts, Photosynthesis and Vacuoles)
Historical ; types of plastids ; chloroplasts — distribution, morphology, isolation and chemical composition, ultra- structure ; functions of the chloroplast : photosynthesis ;
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166–174 175–183
184–190 191–219
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chloroplast as semiautonomous organelle ; biogenesis of chloroplast ; amyloplasts ; chromoplasts ; vacuoles ; revi- sion questions.
12. Nucleus
Historical ; nucleo-cytoplasmic relationship – Hammerling’s experiment ; isolation techniques ; ultrastructure — nuclear envelope, nucleoplasm, chromatin fibres ; revision ques- tions.
13. Chromosomes
Historical; chromosome number ; morphology — karyo- type and idiogram ; material of the chromosome— euchro- matin, heterochromatin; isolation methods ; chemical com- position — DNA, the C-value paradox, histones, non- histones ; ultrastructure — single-stranded and multistranded hypotheses, folded-fibre model and nucleosome concept, nucleosome and solenoid model of chromatin, solenoid models ; functions ; giant chromosomes – polytene chro- mosomes (salivary gland chromosomes), lampbrush chro- mosomes ; revision questions.
14. Ribosomes
Historical ; occurrence and distribution ; method of isola- tion ; types of ribosomes— 70S ribosomes, 80S ribosomes ; number of ribosomes ; structure of ribosomes, chemical composition — ribosomal RNAs, ribosomal proteins ; ul- trastructure– Stoffler and Wittmann’s model, Lake’s model, three-dimensional model of 80S ribosome, dissociation and reconstitution of ribosomes, comparison of 70S and 80S ribosomes ; biogenesis of ribosomes – biogenesis of 70S ribosomes, biogenesis of 80S ribosomes ; revision ques- tions.
15. Cytoskeleton : Microtubules, Microfilaments and Intermediate Filaments
Microtubules — structure, chemical composition, assembly and disassembly of microtubules, functions; microfilaments — distribution, chemical composition; intermediate fila- ments – types of intermediate filaments, general structure of IFs, assembly of IFs, IFs during mitosis, functions of IFs; comparison of microtubules, intermediate filaments and microfilaments; revision questions.
16. Centrioles and Basal Bodies
Occurrence ; structure ; chemical composition ; origin of centrioles and basal bodies ; functions, revision questions.
17. Cilia and Flagella
Sterocilia and kinocilia ; distribution of the cilia and fla- gella ; structure of the cilia and flagella ; isolation and chemical composition of cilia and flagella ; ultrastructure of the cilia and flagella; physiology of ciliary movement —
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257–279
280–292
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304–308 309–317

sliding filament hypothesis, immotile cilia syndrome (Kartagenre’s syndrome); origin of cilia ; derivatives of cilia ; revision questions.
18. Cell Growth and Cell Division (Cell Cycle, Mitosis and Meiosis)
Cell cycle and mitosis —general events of interphase, prophase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase, cytokinesis, physiology of cell cycle and mitosis, significance of mito- sis; meiosis and reproductive cycle, kinds of meiosis, pro- cess of meiosis, heterotypic division or first meiotic divi- sion, homotypic or second meiotic division; significance of meiosis ; comparison of mitosis and meiosis; revision questions.
19. Reproduction
Asexual reproduction; sexual reproduction ; revision ques- tions.
20. Gametogenesis
Spermatogenesis— formation of spermatids, spermiogen- esis; oogenesis—multiplication phase, growth phase, matu- ration phase, structure of mature egg; revision questions.
21. Fertilization
External and internal fertilization; fertilizin and antifertilizin; process of fertilization–activation of the egg ; amphimixis; post-fertilization changes in the egg ; kinds of fertilization; significance of fertilization ; revision questions.
22. Parthenogenesis
Natural parthenogenesis—complete parthenogenesis, incom- plete parthenogenesis ; artificial parthenogenesis, signifi- cance of parthenogenesis ; revision questions.
23. Growth
Levels of growth ; limited and unlimited growth ; cell growth : kinetics of cell growth, mechanisms involved in cell growth— RNA synthesis and cell growth, nucleolus and cell growth, protein synthesis and cell growth; revision questions.
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342–346 347–354
355–359
360–364 365–370
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GENETICS
1. Introduction
3–11 12–21
22–44
Historical : vapour and fluid theories, preformation theo- ries, particulate theories; scope of genetics; importance of genetics; branches of genetics; revision questions.
2. Genetical Terminology
Symbols of genetics; revision questions.
3. Mendel and His Work
Rediscovery of Mendel\'s work, Mendel\'s selection of the experimental plant ; Mendel\'s material and crossing tech- nique; phenomenon of dominance; certain examples of phenomenon of dominance, phenomenon of dominance in plants, application of phenomenon of dominance in ani- mals, mechanism of dominance, variation in dominance relation— incomplete dominance, codominance ; law of segregation : mechanism of segregation, certain other ex- amples of law of segregation ; law of independent assort- ment.: Mendel\'s dihybrid cross, mechanism of independent assortment, a case of reverse genetics in Mendel\'s wrinkled character, dihybrid cross in Drosophila ; back cross and test cross, examples of monohybrid back and test cross, examples of dihybrid test cross; multihybrid cross ; devia- tion from Mendel\'s dihybrid phenotypic ratio : 3 : 6 : 3 : 1 : 2 : 1 ratio, 1 : 2 : 1 : 2 : 4 : 2 : 1 : 2 : 1 ratio, 3 : 1 : 6 : 2 ratio, 1 : 2 : 1 : 3 : 4 : 2 ratio, 4 : 2 : 2 : 1 ratio; revision questions and problems.
4. Genetic Interaction and Lethal Genes
Types of genetic interaction ; non-epistatic inter-allelic genetic interactions ; kinds of epistatic interaction: domi- nant epistasis (12 : 3 : 1), recessive epistasis (9 : 3 : 4), duplicate genes with cumulative effect (9 : 6 : 1), duplicate recessive genes (or complimentary genes; 9 : 7), duplicate dominant genes (15 : 1), dominant and recessive interac- tions (13 : 3); atavism or reversion; lethal genes; pen- etrance; expressivity; pleiotropism; revision questions and problems; answers to problems.
5. Quantitative Genetics (Inheritance of Multiple Genes)
Multiple factor hypothesis ; historical; characters of mul- tiple genes; examples of quantitative inheritance: kernel colour in wheat, skin colour in man, eye colour in man; transgressive variation; modifiers or modifying genes; sig- nificance of quantitative genetics; revision questions and problems; answers to problems.
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6. Inbreeding, Outbreeding and Hybrid Vigour
Inbreeding: method of inbreeding, genetic effect of in- breeding, inbreeding depression, practical applications of inbreeding; outbreeding and hybrid vigour: cross breeding and mule production, manifestation of heterosis—some examples of heterosis in plants, genetic basis of heterosis, application of heterosis; evolutionary significance of in- breeding and outbreeding; revision questions and problems; answers to problems.
7. Linkage
Historical : Sutton-Boveri chromosome theory of heredity, Sutton\'s view on linkage, Bateson and Punnet\'s coupling and repulsion hypothesis, Morgan\'s views on linkage, chro- mosome theory of linkage; kinds of linkage : complete linkage, incomplete linkage; linkage groups; significance of linkage; revision questions and problems; answers to prob- lems.
8. Crossing Over
Types of crossing over : somatic or mitotic crossing over, germinal or meiotic crossing over; mechanism of meiotic crossing over : synapsis, duplication of chromosomes, cross- ing over by breakage and union, terminalisation ; kinds of crossing over; theories about the mechanism of crossing over; tetrad analysis; cytological detection of crossing over; significance of crossing over; revision questions and prob- lems; answers to problems.
9. Genetic and Cytological Mapping of Chromosomes
Construction of a linkage map or genetic mapping : determination of linkage groups, determination of map distance, determination of gene order, interference and coincidence, linkage maps of different organisms; chromo- some, physical or cytological mapping : cytological map- ping of chromosomes of Drosophila, differences between genetic and chromosome maps; uses of genetic maps; revision questions and problems; answers to problems.
10. Multiple Alleles
Characters of multiple alleles; symbolism for multiple alle- les; examples : the C gene in rabbit, A, B, AB and O blood groups in humans, the H antigen and Bombay phenotype, Rh factor, eye colour in Drosophila, self-sterility alleles; revision questions and problems; answers to problems.
11. Fine Structure of Gene
Gene concept : test of allelism — bar locus in Drosophila, lozenge locus, apricot eye colour in Drosophila, cistron, recon and muton, complex gene loci; revision questions and problems; answers to problems.
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84–92
93–105
106–114
115–126
127–133

12. Sex-linked Inheritance
Inheritance of X-linked (sex-linked) genes : characteristics of sex-linked inheritance, examples of inheritance of X- linked recessive genes; inheritance of Y-linked genes; in- heritance of X-Y linked genes; sex-linked lethals; sex influenced genes; sex limited genes; non-disjunction; pri- mary non-disjunction, secondary non-disjunction; revision questions and problems; answers to problems.
13. Determination of Sex and Sex Differentiation
Genetically controlled sex determining mechanisms : sex chromosomal mechanisms (heterogamesis); types of sex chromosomal mechanism of sex determination : heteroga- metic males, heterogametic females, genic balance mecha- nism, sex determination in man, male haploidy or haplodiploidy mechanism, single gene control of sex; metabolically controlled sex determining mechanism ; hor- monally controlled sex determining mechanism ; environ- mentally controlled sex determining mechanism; sex deter- mination in plants, sex differentiation : dosage compensa- tion of genes, hormonal or genital sex, somatic sex, socio- psychological sex; revision questions and problems; an- swers to problems.
14. Chromosomal Mutation-I
(Cytogenetics : Changes in Structure of Chromosome)
Structural changes in chromosomes : types of structural changes in chromosomes — deletion (or deficiency), dupli- cation, inversion, translocation, variation in chromosome morphology; revision questions and problems; answers to problems.
15. Chromosomal Mutation-II
(Cytogenetics : Changes in Chromosome Number)
Euploidy: monoploidy, polyploidy — autopolyploids, al- lopolyploids, synthesized allopolyploids; aneuploidy : mono- somy, nullisomy, trisomy, double trisomy, tetrasomy; revi- sion questions and problems; answers to problems.
16. Gene Mutation
Historical background; occurrence ; kinds of mutations ; classification of mutation according to type of cell, classi- fication of mutation according to the size and quality — point mutation, multiple mutations or gross mutations, clas- sification of mutation according to the origin — spontane- ous mutations, induced mutations — radiations, tempera- ture as mutagen, chemical mutagens, classification of mu- tation according to the direction, classification of mutation according to magnitude of phenotypic effect, classification of mutation according to consequent change in amino acid sequence; mutation rate ; method of detection of sex-linked
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mutation; practical application of mutations ; significance of mutation; revision questions and problems; answers to problems.
17. Cytoplasmic or Extra-Nuclear Inheritance
Evidences for cytoplasmic factors; extra-nuclear inherit- ance in eukaryotes : maternal inheritance, extra-nuclear inheritance by cellular organelles — chloroplast inheritance in variegated four o’clock plant, maternal inheritance by iojap gene of corn, extra-nuclear inheritance by mitochon- dria, extra-nuclear inheritance by endosymbionts: sigma virus in Drosophila, spirochaetes and maternal sex ratio in Drosophila, kappa particles, mm particles, milk factor in mice, uniparental inheritance in Chlamydomonas reinhardi; revision questions and problems; answers to problems.
18. Human Genetics
Pedigree analysis; amniocentesis; twins : identical or monozygotic twins, fraternal or dizygotic twins; human traits; disorders due to mutant genes : PTC tasters, brachy- dactyly, Huntington’s chorea, tongue rolling, inborn errors of metabolism — phenylketonuria (PKU), alkaptonuria, albinism, sickle-cell anaemia; human cytogenetics : band- ing techniques; sex determination; sex linkage; chromo- somal aberrations; revision questions.
19. Eugenics, Euphenics and Genetic Engineering
Eugenics and euthenics; history; need of eugenics; eugenics and human betterment : positive eugenics, negative eugen- ics; euphenics, genetic engineering and gene therapy; revi- sion questions.
20. Transposable Genetic Elements (Jumping or Mobile Genes)
Mode of discovery of transposable elements; characteristics of transposable elements; types of transposable elements : insertion sequences (IS) or simple transposons, transposons (Tn) or complex transposons; examples of transposons: Tn 3 transposon of E.coli, bacteriophage Mu, yeast Ty ele- ments ; revision questions.
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MOLECULAR BIOLOGY
1. Introduction
Historical background ; material and methods in molecular biology ; basic requirements to be met by genetic material ; revision questions.
2. Identification of the Genetic Materials
Direct evidences for DNA as the genetic material — the transformation experiments, identification of the “trans- forming” principle or substance, the blender experiment, bacterial conjugation ; indirect evidences for DNA as the genetic material ; evidences for RNA as the genetic mate- rial of some viruses; revision questions and problems ; answers to problems.
3. Chemical Nature of Genetic Materials (i.e., DNA and RNA)
Historical ; deoxyribonucleic acid or DNA — molar ratios of nitrogen bases in DNA molecule, the equivalence rule, physical, molecular or geometrical organization of DNA, considerations of Watson and Crick in the construction of double helical structure of DNA molecule, Watson and Crick’s model of DNA, ploymorphism of DNA helix (or alternative forms of DNA double helices), Z-DNA (or left- handed DNA) ; ribonucleic acid (RNA) — molecular struc- ture of RNA, replication of genetic RNA ; revision ques- tions and problems ; answers to problems.
4. Replication of DNA
Watson and Crick’s model for DNA replication — experi- mental evidence for semiconservative DNA replication in E.coli, Meselson and Stahl’s experiment, visualization of replication in E. coli, evidences for semiconservative repli- cation of chromosomes (or DNA) in eukaryotes, semidiscontinuous replication, unidirectional and bidirec- tional DNA replication, enzymes of DNA metabolism, roles of RNA primers in DNA replication, replicons, pro- teins involved in opening of DNA helix, replisomes and primosomes ; mechanism of DNA replication in prokary- otes; DNA replication in eukaryotes, model’s of DNA replication ; revision questions and problems ; answers to problems.
5. Non-genetic Ribonucleic Acid (RNA) and Transcription
Chemical composition of non-genetic ribonucleic acid (RNA); comparison between DNA replication and tran- scription ; mechanism of prokaryotic transcription — enzy- matic synthesis of RNA, the RNA polymerase enzyme, binding of RNA polymerase to promoter, initiation, elonga-
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27–43
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tion and termination, classes of RNA molecules and pro- cessing; mechanism of eukaryotic transcription — pro- moter, enhancer and silencers, initiation of eukaryotic tran- scription, elongation of RNA chain in eukaryotes, termina- tion of eukaryotic transcription, chromatin structure and transcription ; types of non-genetic RNA and processing — ribosomal RNA (rRNA), messenger RNA (mRNA), trans- fer RNA (tRNA) ; revision questions and problems ; answers to problems.
6. Genetic Code
Basis of cryptoanalysis ; codon assignment (cracking the code or deciphering the code)— theoretical approach, the in vitro codon assignment, the in vivo codon assignment ; characteristics of genetic code ; wobble hypothesis ; revi- sion questions and problems ; answers to problems.
7. Protein Synthesis
Central dogma and central dogma reverse ; minimum necessary materials ; mechanism of protein synthesis — aminoacylation of tRNA (formation of aminoacyl –tRNA), stages of polypeptide synthesis in prokaryotes, polysomes and coupled transcription — translation, stages of polypep- tide synthesis in eukaryotes, modification of released pro- tein ; antibiotics and protein synthesis; revision questions and problems ; answers to problems.
8. Regulation of Gene Action
Regulation of gene action in prokaryotes — transcriptional control mechanisms: negative control, inducible operons (inducible systems), repressible system, positive control, effects of glucose on lac operon (catabolic repression), translational control, post-translation control (feedback in- hibition or end product inhibition) ; regulation of gene action in eukaryotes — regulation of gene action at the level of genome, regulation of gene action at the level of transcription, post-transcriptional regulation, translational control, post-translational modification of proteins to make them active ones ; hormonal control of gene expression ; revision questions and problems ; answers to problems.
9. Genetic Engineering
(Isolation, Sequencing, Synthesis of Gene and DNA
Fingerprinting)
Tools of genetic engineering ; certain general techniques of genetic engineering — isolation and use of restriction enzymes, Southern blotting technique, northern blotting technique, western blotting technique, vectors, transforma- tion and molecular cloning, isolation of genes — isolation of ribosomal RNA genes in Xenopus ; sequencing of gene— Maxam and Gilbert’s chemical degradation method, Sanger’s dideoxynucleotide synthetic method, direct DNA
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sequencing using PCR ; synthesis of gene —organochemical synthesis of polynucleotides (or chemical synthesis of tRNA genes), synthesis of gene from mRNA (or enzymatic syn- thesis of gene) ; application of genetic engineering — DNA fingerprinting : the ultimate identification test ; revision questions and problems, answers to problems.
10. Immunology
Cellular basis of immunity ; molecular structure of immu- noglobulins or antibodies, antibody diversity (genetic basis of antibody diversity) ; B lymphocytes and the immune response — precipitation of soluble antigens, agglutination, complement fixation, clonal selection theory, allelic exclu- sion, immunologic memory, autoimmune disease; major histocompatibility complexes — class I MHC antigen, class II MHC antigen ; T lymphocytes and the immune response, AIDS (acquired immune deficiency syndrome) ; revision questions.
11. Genetic Recombination and Gene Transfer
(Bacterial Conjugation, Transformation, Transduction,
Episomes and Plasmids)
Conjugation : examples of conjugation, F element and F+ → F– transfer, formation of Hfr cells and Hfr → F– transfer, mapping the bacterial chromosomes; transformation ; trans- duction and recombination of viruses, recombination in viruses ; episomes and plasmids : episomes, plasmids— fertility (F) factor, R plasmid, col factor, replication and recombination in plasmids, uses of plasmids in genetic engineering and biotechnology ; revision questions.
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EVOLUTION
1. Introduction 3–7
Fact of evolution; evolution compared with ancient history; a preview of evolution; certain misconceptions of evolu- tionary biology; significance of evolutionary biology; revi- sion questions.
2. Development of the Idea of Organic Evolution 8–17
Period of obscurity; period of ancient Greeks and Romans; pre-Darwinian period; Darwinian period; post-Darwinian period : the romantic period, the agnostic period, the mod- ern synthesis period; present state of evolution idea; revi- sion questions.
3. Direct Evidences of Evolution : Fossils
Palaeontological evidences : branches of palaeontology; fossils : how fossils are formed ? conditions of fossiliza- tion, formation of rocks, determination of age of rocks and fossils, nature of fossils, types of fossils, significance of fossils; the geological time table, conclusions drawn from fossil record, imperfection of fossil record; revision ques- tions.
4. Indirect Evidences of Evolution
Evidences from classification (taxonomy); evidences from comparative anatomy: connecting link, homology, analogy (homoplasy), vestigial organs; evidences from comparative embryology : genetic basis of recapitulation; evidences from comparative physiology and biochemistry : proto- plasm chemistry, chromosome chemistry, enzyme similari- ties, hormonal similarities, comparative serology, amino acid sequence analyses, excretory product analyses, phosphagens; evidences from comparative cytology; evi- dences from genetics; evidences from biogeographical rela- tions : continental islands; revision questions.
5. Theories of Organic Evolution (Lamarckism, Darwinism, Modern Synthetic Theory, Germplasm Theory and Mutation Theory)
Theory of inheritance of acquired characters (Lamarckism): examples of Lamarckism, critical analysis of Lamarck’s propositions, neo-Lamarckism; theory of natural selection (Darwinism), facts that influenced Darwin’s thoughts, pan- genesis hypothesis, Darwin-Wallace theory of natural se- lection, critical analysis of Darwinism, neo-Darwinism, maturation of neo-Darwinism into modern synthesis; mod- ern synthetic theory; Weismann’s germ plasm theory; mu- tation theory : characteristics of mutation theory, types of mutation, advantages of mutation theory, objections to mutation theory; revision questions.
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6. Selection in Action
(Examples and Types of Natural Selection)
Melanism in moths or industrial melanism, Australian rab- bits, resistance of insects to pesticides, antibiotic resistance in bacteria, infectious diseases in humans, sickle cell anaemia, heavy metal resistance in plants; types of selec- tion: directional selection, stabilizing selection, disruptive or diversifying selection, sexual selection, group and kin selection; revision questions.
7. Population Genetics and Evolution
Mendelian population; gene pool and gene frequency : two models of gene pool structure— classical hypothesis, bal- ance hypothesis; chance mating or panmixis; Hardy- Weinberg law : genetic equilibrium; application of Hardy- Weinberg law in calculating gene frequencies in a popula- tion; factors influencing allele frequency or deviations from Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium : selection — evolution, natural selection, directional selection, artificial selection, significance of heterozygote, genetic load (concealed vari- ability) and price of evolution, mutation, meiotic drive and migration pressure, random genetic drift, founder principle; genetic polymorphism; population genetics and evolution : speciation; revision questions.
8. Evolution above Species Level
(Adaptation, Adaptive Radiation, Microevolution, Macroevolution, Megaevolution, Punctuated Equilibria and Related Phenomena)
Adaptive radiation : examples of adaptive radiation; Simpson’ s adaptive grid and macro-evolution; Mivart’ s dilemma and preadaptation; microevolution, macroevolu- tion, megaevolution and hypothesis of punctuated equilib- ria : microevolution, macroevolution — evolution of horses, general principles of macroevolution, megaevolution—he process involved in macroevolution and megaevolution, doctrine of punctuated equilibria, whether human evolution is graduated or punctuated ? ; Simpson’s hopeful monster; orthogenesis and orthoselection; revision questions.
9. Isolation
Types of isolation : isolation by time, isolation by distance (spatial isolation), geographical isolation; reproductive iso- lation; types of isolating mechanisms; premating or prezygotic isolating mechanisms : habitat isolation (eco- logical isolation), seasonal isolation (temporal isolation), ethological or behavioural isolation (sexual selection), me- chanical isolation; postmating or postzygotic isolating mechanisms : gametic mortality, zygotic mortality, hybrid inviability, developmental hybrid sterility, segregational hybrid sterility, F2 breakdown; the coaction of isolating mechanisms; the genetics of isolating mechanisms; role of
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isolating mechanisms; origin of isolation; revision ques- tions.
10. Speciation
Species, race and deme; nature of speciation; potential modes of speciation; instantaneous speciation : instanta- neous speciation through ordinary mutation, instantaneous speciation through macrogenesis, instantaneous speciation through chromosomal aberrations, instantaneous speciation through polyploidy; gradual speciation : geographic or allopatric speciation, sympatric speciation—definition of sympatric speciation, reasons for postulating sympatric speciation, biological and host races, means of sympatric speciation, hypothesis of sympatric speciation — homogamy, conditioning, preadaptation and niche selection, sympatric speciation by disruptive selection, differences between allo- patric (geographic) and sympatric speciation; quantum spe- ciation; differences between speciation in animals and in plants; revision questions.
11. Barriers
Topographic barriers, climatic or ecological barriers, veg- etative barriers, large bodies of water as barriers, lack of salinity of sea water as barrier, biological barriers; revision questions.
12. Origin of Life
Historical and theories : special creation theory, Hindu concept of origin of life, theories of spontaneous generation or abiogenesis, the decline and fall of the theory of spon- taneous generation, hypothesis of panspermia, theory of chemical evolution and spontaneous origin of life at mo- lecular level, experimental support of Oparin’s hypothesis — Miller’s experiment, protenoid microspheres, Cairns- Smith’s model, RNA first model, why RNA and not DNA was the first living molecules; process of origin of life : structure of cosmos, primitive earth, prebiotic synthesis, evolution of progenote— origin and evolution of RNA world, origin and evolution of ribonucleoprotein (RNP) world, origin of plasma membrane, DNA world, origin of progenote, retrograde evolution, adaptive radiation in progenote, evolution of eukaryotes : endosymbiotic hypoth- esis, invagination of surface membrane hypothesis; mo- lecular evolution : the evolution of proteins, examples of protein evolution — insulin, haemoglobin, cytochrome c, neutral theory of protein evolution; revision questions.
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ECOLOGY
1. Introduction
3–13
14-19
20–48
Definition of ecology ; historical background of ecology ; branches of ecology; relationship of ecology with other disciplines ; ecological tools and techniques; significance of ecology for man ; revision questions.
2. Ecology in India
Growth of plant ecology ; growth of animal ecology ; growth of desert ecology; growth of oceanography and limnology ; growth of pollution biology ; revision ques- tions.
3. Environment
Atmosphere (air) : various zones of atmosphere, air, physi- ologic-ecologic inter-relationship of gases and animals, air as medium for living organisms ; hydrosphere (water) : physical properties of water, chemical properties of water, effect of factor of aquatic environment on aquatic organ- isms, water and ecological adaptations, snow as habitat ; lithosphere (soil) ; soil, soil formation or pedogenesis— process of soil formation, weathering of soil forming rocks, mineralization and humification, formation of organo-min- eral complexes, soil profile, climate and soil types, mor- phology of soil, physical properties of soil, chemical prop- erties of soil, soil as habitats for animals, soil fauna and soil flora, revision questions.
4. Abiotic Environmental Factors
Types of abiotic environmental factors ; essential elements and limiting factors, Liebig – Blackmann law of limiting factors ; threshold and rate ; Shelford’s law of tolerance ; light and radiations : light receptors of animals, light variations in different environment, effect of light on the plants, effect of light on animals; temperature : nature of temperature, heat budget, temperature fluctuations in differ- ent environments, range of temperature tolerance, poikilo- therms and homeotherms, effect of temperature on plants and animals, thermal adaptations of plants and animals ; precipitation (rainfall) ; humidity of air; fire: types of fire, effect of fire, adaptations to fire, wind factor ; physi- ographic factors : latitudes and altitudes, height of moun- tain chains, direction of mountains and valleys, steepness of slope ; revision questions.
5. Biotic Environmental Factors
Interspecific interactions : positive interactions— mutual- ism, commensalism, protocooperation, negative interactions — exploitation, amensalism, competition; revision ques- tions.
6. Population (Population ecology)
Population characteristics : population size and density, patterns of population dispersion, age structure, natality,
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mortality, biotic potential ; population dynamics; growth rate of population ; population dispersion : emigration, immigration, migration ; regulation of population size : population cycles ; population ecology and evolution ; revision questions.
7. BioticCommunities
(Community ecology : Communities, niche and
bioindicators)
Characteristics of a community; classification of the com- munities ; composition of community: size, number of species, dominants, ecological amplitude ; horizontal strati- fication, vertical stratification ; characters used in commu- nity structure : quantitative structure of plant communities — frequency, density, abundance, cover and basal area, qualitative characteristics of plant communities — physiog- nomy, phenology, stratification, abundance, sociability, vi- tality, life form (growth form), synthetic characters — presence and constance, fidelity, dominance, importance value index and polygraph construction ; habitat and niche : spatial or habital niche, trophic niche, multifactor or hypervolume niche; community metabolism ; community stability, ecotone and edge effect ; factor compensation and ecotypes ; ecological indicators ; revision questions.
8. Ecological Succession
Causes of succession; trends of succession (functional changes); basic types of succession; general process of succession : nudation, invasion, competition and coaction, reaction, stabilization (climax); some examples of succes- sion : hydrosere, succession in xeric habitat; concept of climax : monoclimax theory, polyclimax theory, climax pattern hypothesis, information theory, certain recent mod- els of succession, resource-ratio hypothesis of succession; community evolution; revision questions.
9. Ecosystem : Structure and Function
Kinds of ecosystem; structure of ecosystem: abiotic or non- living components, biotic or living components— autotrophic component, heterotrophic component; example of ecosys- tem; function of an ecosystem — productivity of ecosys- tem, food chains in ecosystems; grazing food chain, detritus food chain; ecological pyramids: types of ecological pyra- mids; energy flow in ecosystems: concept of energy, unit of energy, ecological energetics, laws governing energy trans- formation, concept of free energy, enthalpy and entropy, Lindeman’s trophic– dynamic concept, maintenance cost of secondary producers, assimilated energy and respiration energy, ecological efficiency; revision questions.
10. Biogeochemical Cycles
Types of biogeochemical cycles : water cycle, gaseous cycles — the oxygen cycle, the carbon cycle, the nitrogen cycle, sedimentary cycles — sulphur cycle, phosphorus
(xx)
109–126
127–136
137–153
154–166

cycle, biogeochemical cycle of micronutrients; revision questions.
11. Aquatic Ecosystems : Freshwater Communities
Aquatic ecosystems; subdivisions of aquatic ecosystems; freshwater ecosystems: physico-chemical nature of fresh- water : pressure, density and buoyancy, temperature, light, oxygen, carbon dioxide, other gases, pH or hydrogen ion concentration; lentic ecosystems : lakes and ponds, physico- chemical properties of lakes and ponds, biotic communities of lakes and ponds, distribution of oxygen and dissolved nutrients in lakes; lotic ecosystems : characteristics of lotic environment, rapidly flowing water, slowly flowing water, revision questions.
12. Aquatic Ecosystems : Estuaries and Marine Communities
Estuarine ecology : types of estuaries, physico-chemical aspects of estuaries, biotic communities of estuaries, sub- systems of estuaries; marine ecosystems : physico-chemical aspects of marine environment — light, temperature, pres- sure, zonation of marine environment, stratification of ma- rine environment, salinity, currents and tides; marine com- munities : biotic communities of oceanic region, biotic communities of continental shelf, coral reef as a specialized oceanic ecosystem, biotic communities of coral reef; revi- sion questions.
13. Terrestrial Ecosystems
Physico-chemical nature of terrestrial ecosystems and their comparison with aquatic ecosystems; classification of ter- restrial eco-systems : biogeographic realms or regions, biomes : tundra biome, high altitude or the alpine biome, forest biomes, tropical savanna biomes, grassland biomes, desert biomes, wetland biomes; revision questions.
14. Pollution
(Environmental Pollutants and Toxicology)
Origin of pollution ; pollutants : the creators of pollution : types of pollutants; air pollution : air quality, methods of detection and measurement of air pollution, sources of air pollution — air pollution by natural means, air pollution by human activities, types of air pollutants, ecology of air pollution — gaseous pollutants, particulate pollutants, ef- fect of air pollution on weather, climate and atmospheric processes — green house effect, peeling of ozone umbrella by CFMs, control of air pollution; water pollution : kinds and sources of water pollutants, ecology of water pollution — sewage pollution, industrial pollution, thermal pollution, silt pollution, water pollution by agrochemicals, marine pollution, control of water pollution; land pollutants and
(xxi)
167–180
181–194
195–208
209–237

land pollution: minimizing land pollution; radioactive pollu- tion, noise pollution, health hazards of noise pollution, reducing noise pollution; revision questions.
15. Ecology and Human Welfare
(Natural Resource Ecology : Natural Resources,
Conservation and Management)
Classification of natural resources; conservation of natural resources; minerals and their conservation : terrestrial min- eral resources, marine mineral resources, conservation of terrestrial mineral resources, ecological aspects of mining; energy and its conservation : commercial sources of en- ergy— fuels, electric energy production, non-commercial sources of energy — fire wood, petroplants, biogas, non- conventional renewable sources of energy — dendrothermal energy, solar energy, wind energy, ocean or tidal energy, geothermal energy; food, agriculture and aquaculture : shifting cultivation, sedentary cultivation, new sources of food; waste management (recycling of resources and vermi- technology) : vermitechnology; forest resources : forest cover, deforestation (destruction of forests), afforestation — conservation or protective forestry, commercial or ex- ploitative forestry; range management (grassland manage- ment); wild-life management; water resource and its man- agement; land use planning and management; soil erosion and soil conservation : types of soil erosion, soil conserva- tion; revision questions.
16. Wild Life Management
Wild life of India : deer, antelopes and other herbivores, big cats and other carnivores, birds, crocodiles and other rep- tiles, frog; concept of threatened species; reasons for deple- tion of wild life; necessity for wild life conservation, modes of wild life conservation : protection by law, protected species of Indian wild life, establishment of sanctuaries and national parks, other conservation measures; revision ques- tions.
17. Biogeography
(Distribution of Animals and Plants)
Descriptive phytogeography: major plant communities (biomes) of the world, phytogeographical regions of world— arctic zone, north temperate zone, tropical zone, south temperate zone; phytogeography of India — vegetation of India, forest vegetation – moist tropical forests, dry tropical forests, montane (mountainous) subtropical forests, mon- tane temperate forests, alpine forests; floristic (botanical) regions (provinces) of India; patterns of distribution of biota : distribution, endemism, centre of origin; descriptive zoogeography; zoogeographical regions — palaearctic re- gion, nearctic region, neotropical region, Ethiopian region, oriental region, Australian region; revision questions.
(xxii)
238–259
260–271
272–283

18. Adaptations
(Aquatic Adaptations, Volant Adaptations and Desert
Adaptations) 284–294
Aquatic adaptations : primary aquatic adaptations, second- ary aquatic adaptations; volant adaptations; desert adapta- tions; revision questions.
Indices
1–30