Carbonate Depositional Environments (AAPG Memoir 33)

CARBONATE DEPOSITIONAL ENVIRONMENTS......Page 1
Front matter......Page 2
Introduction......Page 3
1. Subaerial Exposure Environment......Page 6
SUBAERIAL EXPOSURE......Page 7
Alteration Zone Associated with Subaerial Exposure......Page 9
Fundamentals and Variations on a Theme......Page 10
Importance of Subaerial Exposure......Page 12
Relationship to Lateral Facies......Page 13
Subaerial Exposure Facies......Page 15
Karst Facies......Page 16
Caliche Facies......Page 19
Subaerial Exposure Surfaces in the Geologic Record......Page 25
General Procedure......Page 26
Diagnostic Features......Page 28
Indicative of Caliche Facies......Page 30
Palustrine Carbonates......Page 45
Superficial Similarities......Page 46
Oil and Gas Exploration......Page 47
Other Mineral Resources......Page 48
CONCLUDING REMARKS......Page 50
SELECTED REFERENCES......Page 53
Sediment Types......Page 60
Early Diagenesis......Page 62
Geochemistry......Page 65
Depositional Environment......Page 66
Mineralization......Page 67
SELECTED REFERENCES......Page 68
Travertines......Page 69
Geological Setting......Page 70
CLASSIFICATION......Page 72
HAND SAMPLES......Page 73
RECOGNITION IN THE FOSSIL RECORD......Page 75
SELECTED REFERENCES......Page 76
MINERAL DEPOSITS ASSOCIATED WITH SUBAERIAL EXPOSURE SURFACES......Page 78
Pine Point Lead-Zinc District......Page 80
Tennessee Zinc Districts......Page 91
Effects of Subaerial Exposure......Page 92
SELECTED REFERENCES......Page 95
Paleokarst Development......Page 98
2. Lacustrine Environment......Page 102
DEPOSITIONAL SETTINGS......Page 104
Mineralogy......Page 108
Profundal Carbonate......Page 111
Littoral Carbonate......Page 118
MODEL FOR COMPARISON......Page 122
ECONOMIC CONSIDERATIONS......Page 123
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS......Page 127
SELECTED REFERENCES......Page 128
3. Eolian Environment......Page 136
DIAGNOSTIC CRITERIA......Page 138
Summary of Criteria......Page 141
Location and Development of Dunes......Page 144
Dune Types......Page 147
Interdunes......Page 149
Height of Calcareous Dunes and Thickness of Eolian Limestones......Page 151
Paleosols and Stabilization by Plants......Page 152
Relationship to Changes in Sea Level and Climate......Page 154
Character of Sand......Page 155
Grain Size......Page 159
Grain Sorting......Page 160
Skewness......Page 161
Cross-Stratification......Page 162
Minor Structures......Page 165
EARLY-DIAGENETIC FABRICS......Page 167
Early-Stage Cements......Page 168
Progressive Early Diagenesis......Page 169
Pleistocene Examples......Page 170
Ancient Eolianites......Page 171
SELECTED REFERENCES......Page 172
4. Tidal Flat Environment......Page 176
TIDAL FLAT ENVIRONMENTS AND SEDIMENTATION......Page 178
Mudcracks......Page 179
Laminations......Page 181
Algal Structures......Page 185
Bird\'s-eye Structures......Page 188
Pseudo-Bird\'s-eye or Fenestral Structures......Page 191
Intraclasts......Page 192
INTERTIDAL ZONE......Page 193
Adjacent Marine Sediment......Page 195
Tidal Channels......Page 196
Dolomite......Page 200
Cementation......Page 204
Evaporites and Silica Cement......Page 206
Structural Traps......Page 207
The Stratigraphic Trap Model......Page 208
Outcrop Examples......Page 209
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS......Page 211
SELECTED REFERENCES......Page 212
5. Beach Environment......Page 216
DEFINITION......Page 217
General Model......Page 218
Vertical Textural Sequence......Page 219
Sedimentary Features — Physical and Biological......Page 221
Sedimentary Features — Diagenetic......Page 226
Beach Recognition......Page 228
GEOLOGIC SETTINGS, ASSOCIATED FACIES, AND BASIC BEACH MODEL VARIATIONS......Page 229
Barriers......Page 230
Beaches Associated with Higher Energy Shelf Environments and Reefs......Page 233
Preservability and Morphologies of Fossilized Beach Facies......Page 235
THE GENERAL BEACH ENVIRONMENT AS A POTENTIAL RESERVOIR......Page 240
Cretaceous Isolated Island Beach — Texas......Page 241
Cretaceous Mainland Beach — Central Texas......Page 244
Diagenesis......Page 246
Mississippian of Kentucky......Page 248
Cretaceous Shelf Margin — Texas......Page 250
Diagenesis......Page 254
Mission Canyon Formation — Williston Basin......Page 256
Diagenesis —  Mission Canyon Formation, Little Knife Area, and Glenburn Field, Bottineau County......Page 259
CONCLUSIONS......Page 262
SELECTED REFERENCES......Page 268
6. Shelf Environment......Page 272
SUMMARY OF DIAGNOSTIC CRITERIA......Page 273
Lateral Facies Relationships......Page 276
Depositional Geometry......Page 278
Other Modern Settings......Page 281
MICROFACIES......Page 284
SEQUENCES......Page 286
SEDIMENTARY STRUCTURES......Page 293
ECONOMIC CONSIDERATIONS......Page 295
Common Diagenetic Patterns......Page 296
Production from Restricted Shelf, Bay, and Lagoon Facies......Page 297
SELECTED REFERENCES......Page 298
7. Middle Shelf Environment......Page 302
SETTING......Page 303
STRATIGRAPHY AND FACIES......Page 304
Regional Facies......Page 305
Paleoecology......Page 306
Bedding Types......Page 307
Exposure Surfaces......Page 310
HOLOCENE EXAMPLES OF SHELF FACIES......Page 312
The Great Bahama Bank: Drop-Off Model, Offshore Bank......Page 313
Persian Gulf: Ramp Model......Page 315
SHELF FACIES THROUGH GEOLOGIC TIME......Page 318
ANCIENT EXAMPLES OF SHELF FACIES......Page 323
ECONOMIC CONSIDERATIONS......Page 329
Reservoir Facies......Page 333
Shelf Carbonates as Source Rocks......Page 337
Predictive Stratigraphic Models of Shelf Sedimentation......Page 339
Examples of Oil and Gas Production in Middle Shelf Carbonates......Page 342
The Viburnum Trend......Page 346
SELECTED REFERENCES......Page 347
8. Reef Environment......Page 350
Dynamics of Reef Sedimentation......Page 352
Patch Reefs......Page 353
Platform Margin Reefs......Page 359
Algal Cup Reefs......Page 374
Inshore Banks of Branching Coral and Algae......Page 378
Linear Mud Banks......Page 379
Deep Water Carbonate Buildups......Page 381
Nomenclature......Page 383
Analysis of Reef Limestones......Page 386
Internal Structure of Fossil Reefs......Page 388
Reef Mounds......Page 398
Stromatolite Buildups......Page 402
Early Paleozoic Reef Mounds......Page 410
Middle Paleozoic Structures......Page 413
Late Paleozoic-Early Mesozoic Buildups......Page 416
Cenozoic Reefs......Page 426
Cycles of Reef Growth......Page 430
REEFS AND CARBONATE PLATFORM GEOMETRY......Page 431
SUMMARY......Page 433
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS......Page 434
SELECTED REFERENCES......Page 435
Lower Cretaceous Reefs, South Texas......Page 446
SELECTED REFERENCES......Page 449
Golden Spike Reef Complex, Alberta......Page 450
STRATIGRAPHY: MAJOR FACIES......Page 451
Reef Margin......Page 452
DEPOSITIONAL HISTORY......Page 453
RESERVOIR QUALITY......Page 454
DIAGENETIC CONTROLS ONRESERVOIR QUALITY......Page 455
REFERENCES CITED......Page 457
GENERAL SETTING ANDOCCURRENCE......Page 459
GENERAL FEATURES OF THEREEF MOUNDS......Page 460
REEF MOUNDS IN THE ISMAYFIELD: A CASE STUDY......Page 462
Reef-Mound Facies......Page 463
Reef-Mound and Associated Cycles......Page 464
SELECTED REFERENCES......Page 466
9. Bank Margin Environment......Page 468
PREVIOUS WORK......Page 470
Carbonate Sands......Page 471
MODERN SAND BODIES......Page 472
TIDAL-BAR BELTS......Page 474
Other Examples......Page 477
Other Examples......Page 478
TIDAL DELTAS......Page 482
BACK-REEF SANDS......Page 483
SUMMARY OF FACTORS INFLUENCING SAND BODIES......Page 485
Antecedent Topography......Page 487
Physical Processes......Page 489
Sea-Level Changes......Page 490
Diagenesis......Page 491
Surface Sediments......Page 495
Subsurface Facies Relations......Page 496
Shallowing-upward Sequence......Page 498
Pleistocene......Page 499
Jurassic of the Gulf Coast......Page 501
Variations Among Ancient Examples......Page 504
SUMMARY......Page 505
SELECTED REFERENCES......Page 506
10. Fore-reef Slope Environment......Page 512
DIAGNOSTIC CHARACTERISTICS......Page 514
SETTING......Page 516
RELATION TO LATERAL FACIES......Page 520
LITHOFACIES AND SEDIMENTARY FACIES......Page 523
Deposits of Gravity-induced Processes......Page 524
Suspension Deposits......Page 530
STRATIGRAPHIC SEQUENCE......Page 533
LOG RESPONSE......Page 534
ECONOMIC CONSIDERATIONS......Page 535
CASE HISTORIES OF PETROLEUM PRODUCTION......Page 538
SELECTED REFERENCES......Page 539
11. Basin Margin Environment......Page 544
SUMMARY OF DIAGNOSTIC CHARACTERISTICS......Page 545
PHYSIOGRAPHY AND TYPES OF SLOPES......Page 546
MASS TRANSPORT PROCESSES ON SLOPES......Page 549
Modern Pelagic Sediment......Page 558
Modern Rock Falls......Page 563
Modern Slides, Slumps, and Intraformational Truncation Surfaces......Page 564
Ancient Slides, Slumps, and Intraformational Truncation Surfaces......Page 565
Sediment Gravity-Flow Deposits......Page 567
Bottom-current Deposits......Page 576
Modern......Page 583
MASS-TRANSPORT FACIES, FACIES SEQUENCES, FACIES ASSOCIATIONS, AND MODELS......Page 585
Mass-transport Facies......Page 586
Facies Sequences and Associations......Page 587
Models......Page 591
PETROLEUM CONSIDERATIONS......Page 595
SELECTED REFERENCES......Page 598
12. Pelagic Environment......Page 624
PELAGIC SEDIMENT COMPOSITION AND TEXTURE......Page 626
CLASSIFICATION OF PELAGIC SEDIMENTS......Page 628
Biogenic Production of Pelagic Sediment......Page 629
Selective Dissolution......Page 631
Sediment Modification by Submarine Currents......Page 634
Dilution of Pelagic Sediment......Page 637
Changes in Global Climate, Ocean Circulation and Pelagic Sedimentation Patterns......Page 638
Shelf Seas......Page 640
Oceanic Areas......Page 647
SEDIMENTATION RATES......Page 650
Primary Sedimentary Structures of Carbonate Sequences......Page 653
Structures of Associated Sediments and Underlying Basement Rocks......Page 655
Deep-Sea Pelagic Carbonates and Associated Facies......Page 657
Bioturbation of Shelf-sea Pelagic Units......Page 661
Body Fossils in Pelagic Carbonates......Page 662
Carbonate Sediments......Page 664
Siliceous Sediments......Page 668
Other Diagenetic Processes......Page 669
ECONOMIC CONSIDERATIONS......Page 672
SELECTED REFERENCES......Page 677